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INDUSTRIAL  RECIPES 


A  COLLECTION  OF  USEFUL,  RELIABLE,  PRACTICAL 

RECIPES,  RULES,  PROCESSES,  METHODS 

WRINKLES  AND  PRACTICAL  HINTS 


FORMING   A   RELIABLE 

WORKSHOP  COMPANION 

FOR  ALL  ENGAGED  IN  THE   VARIOUS    INDUSTRIAL 
ARTS  AND   TRADES 


By  JOHN  PHIN,  Ph.D. 

Author  of  "SUCCESS  WITH  RElCIPES,"  "TRADE  SECRETS" 
"  CEMENTS  AND  GLUES,"  "  HOW  TO  USE  THE  MICROSCOPE,"  ETC. 


Third  Edition — Greatly  Enlarged 


NEW  YORK 

INDUSTRIAL   BOOK  COMPANY 

1913 


INDUSTRIAL    RECIPES 


Copyright  Secured  1879,  1890  by  John  Phin. 

Copyright  Secured  1912  by  Industrial  Book  Co. 

Translation  Riglits  Reserved. 


I^REF'^OE 


The  following  pages  have  been  prepared  with  very  great 
care,  the  chief  aim  being  to  give  none  but  recipes  whicli 
will  not  disappoint  those  who  attempt  to  use  them.  Sev- 
eral of  the  recipes  here  given  are  original,  the  formulae 
having  been  worked  out  or  improved  by  the  author  after 
much  labor  and  experiment.  In  searching  for  really  good 
formulfe,  we  have  been  astonished  at  the  errors  which 
have  crept  into  many  of  our  standard  books  of  recipes. 
For  example,  in  one  case  the  two  separate  operations  of  a 
well-known  process  for  staining  wood  are  given  as  distinct, 
and,  of  course  useless  recipes !  In  a  seemingly  favorite  re- 
cipe for  a  washing  fluid,  the  reader  is  directed  to  add  vine- 
gar to  the  ammonia  employed,  thus  entirely  neutralizing  it. 
In  the  same  way  we  find  a  I'ecipe  for  transferring  printed 
engravings  to  wood,  in  which  the  alkali  (potash)  is  neutral- 
ized with  vitriol !  We  suppose  that  in  the  last  case,  the 
author  of  this  recipe  thought  that  two  strong  liquids  must 
be  better  than  one,  forgetting  or  not  knowing  the  fact  that 
one  destroys  the  effect  of  the  other.  A  very  slight  knowl- 
edge of  technological  science  would  have  enabled  the  com- 
pilers of  these  books  to  avoid  such  blunders.  In  addition 
to  these  defects,  however,  most  of  our  large  books  of  re- 
cipes contain  so  much  that  is  entirely  useless  to  the 
practical  man,  and  so  many  mere  repetitions  of  the  same 
recipe  in  different  language  and  terms,  that  their  cost  is 
greatly  increased  while  their  value  instead  of  being  en- 
hanced, is  actually  lessened.  We  have,  therefore,  en- 
deavored to  combine  in  the  following  pages  all  that  is 
really  of  practical  value  to  the  professional  or  amateur 
mechanic,  and  at  the  same  time  by  giving  only  one  or  two 


TV  PKEFACE. 

of  the  best  recipes  under  each  head,  we  have  not  only  sim- 
plified the  work,  but  we  have  brought  it  to  suc>i  a  size  and 
price  that  every  one  can  afford  to  buy  it. 

The  subjects  treated  of  in  this  work  are  arrarged  alpha- 
betically, so  as  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  constant  reference 
to  the  index.  A  few  words  in  regard  to  tlie  method  pursued 
in  arranging  the  matter  may,  however,  not  be  out  of  place. 
As  we  believe  that  the  greatest  advantage  will  be  derived 
from  bringing  together  at  one  place  not  only  the  special 
instructions  in  regard  to  particular  processes,  but  the 
general  information  relating  to  the  materials,  etc.,  em- 
ployed, we  have  in  most  cases  collected  all  such  matter 
together  under  one  head.  Thus,  under  the  head  of  "  Steel  " 
will  be  fouml  not  only  a  description  of  the  different  kinds 
of  steel,  but  directions  for  forging,  tempering,  etc.,  but  as 
most  persons  who  consult  this  book  would  most  likely  look 
under  the  head  "  Tempering  "  for  information  on  that  par- 
ticular subject,  we  have  entered  the  word  "Tempering" 
and  under  it  give  a  cross-reference  to  "  Steel. "  This  is  the 
reason  why  we  have  introduced  so  many  cross  references, 
every  one  of  which  was  put  in  after  the  book  was  written, 
so  that  the  reader  will  not  be  disappointed  when  he  turns 
to  the  heading  to  which  he  is  directed.  Many  of  our  read- 
ers, doubtless,  know  that  in  too  many  volumes  of  this  kind, 
cross  references  are  inserted  merely  for  the  pvirpose  of 
swelling  the  apparent  amount  of  information  contained  in 
the  volume,  and  very  often  when  the  reader  turns  to  the 
heading  to  which  he  is  directed,  he  finds  that  the  subject 
which  he  is  looking  for  has  been  omitted.  In  the  present 
case,  the  utmost  care  has  been  taken  to  prevent  disappoint- 
ment of  every  kind,  and  whenever  information  is  promised 
we  have  endeavored  to  give  it  fully,  accurately,  and  in  the 
simplest  possible  language. 


PREFACE  TO  REVISED  EDITION 
PREFACE. 


The  extraordinary  favor  which  has  been  accorded  to  the 
first  part  of  The  Workshop  Companion — over  twenty-five 
thousand  copies  having  been  sold  without  any  special  effort — 
has  induced  the  author  to  prepare  a  second  part,  containing 
matter  for  which  he  has  received  numerous  inquiries  from 
readers  of  the  first  part. 

In  doing  this  he  has  received  aid  from  some  of  the  best 
practical  writers  in  the  country,  and  feels  assured  that  the 
matter  now  given  will  prove  as  thorough,  as  reliable,  and  as 
clearly  expressed  as  that  which  preceded  it.  So  that  the  work 
now  forms  a  compact  and  convenient  cyclopedia  of  informa- 
tion for  everyday  life. 

In  collecting  the  information  here  given  great  care  has 
been  taken  to  offer  nothing  but  what  is  thoroughly  reliable. 
It  is  a  fact  well  known  to  all  intelligent  technologists  that  a 
very  large  proportion  of  our  best  recipes  are  to  be  found  in 
volumes  published  many  years  ago,  whence  they  have  been 
copied  and  recopied  by  different  compilers.  And  it  is  also 
a  fact,  though  one  less  generally  known,  that  the  sources  of 
new  information  upon  which  tliese  same  compilers  depend  are 
just  the  ones  in  which  the  most  recent  knowledge  is  not  to 
be  found.  As  a  general  rule  the  authors  or  compilers  of  our 
modern  collections  of  recipes  have  gone  to  the  "Question  and 
Answer"  columns  of  the  popular  scientific  and  technical 
journals,  ignorant  of  the  fact  that  even  when  these  questions 

V 


VI  PREFACE. 

are  bona  fide,  the  answers  are  usually  taken  from  some  one 
of  the  old  recipe-books.  Indeed  it  often  happens  that  even 
when  the  questions  are  the  genuine  inquirings  of  some  seeker 
after  special  knowledge,  and  the  answers  are  given  by  fellow- 
subscribers,  the  latter  obtain  their  replies  from  commonplace 
and  easily  accessible  books  of  recipes,  and  send  them  to  the 
journal  more  for  the  sake  of  seeing  themselves  in  print  than 
from  any  other  motive.  Now  and  then  we  find  a  reply  which 
is  based  upon  the  actual  and  intelligent  experience  of  the 
correspondent,  and  such  replies  are  beyond  all  value.  But 
unfortunately  such  information  is  as  rare  as  it  is  valuable. 

The  difficulty  of  attaining  simplicity  and  trustworthiness 
in  a  work  of  this  kind  is  best  illustrated  by  the  statement 
of  the  compiler  of  one  of  the  most  extensive  collections  of 
recipes  published  in  this  country.  He  tells  us  that  he  set 
out  with  the  intention  of  carefully  sifting  the  vast  accumula- 
tion at  his  command,  and  preparing  a  collection  of  popular 
and  domestic  recipes  which  should  contain  only  those  whose 
practical  utility  had  been  established,  either  by  actual  trial 
or  by  the  guarantee  of  undoubted  authorities.  But  he  further 
tells  us  that  as  the  work  progressed  this  was  found  to  be 
impracticable ;  and  those  who  are  competent  to  examine  his 
book  critically  will  find  that  he  has  ended  by  publishing 
everything  —  good,  bad,  and  indifferent, — the  same  recipe 
frequently  appearing  in  a  slightly  different  form  half  a  dozen 
times! 

Several  of  the  articles  in  this  volume,  although  original 
with  the  editor,  have  appeared  in  the  mechanical  journals  of 
the  day,  and  have  been  thence  copied  into  other  publications, 
and  generally  without  credit.    This  is  notably  the  case  with 


PEE  FACE.  Vli 

the  articles  Cements,  Soldering  and  Brazing,  Weight  of  Pat- 
terns for  Castings,  Nails,  Glue,  and  some  others,  which  have 
been  copied  not  only  into  contemporary  journals  but  into 
numerous  books  of  recipes  and  works  on  mechanics.  These 
articles  were  written  for  the  first  volume  of  The  Manufacturer 
and  Builder,  of  which  the  author  of  this  volume  was  editor-in- 
chief,  and  for  The  Technologist.  As  for  The  Workshop  Com- 
panion itself,  it  has  simply  served  as  a  mine  from  which 
editors  and  contributors  might  draw  short  and  valuable 
articles  when  their  pages  were  otherwise  destitute  of  sound 
practical  matter.  In  fact,  one  rather  pretentious  English 
periodical  has  published  nearly  the  whole  of  it,  piece  by  piece, 
and  without  the  least  credit! 

All  this,  however,  is  offered  in  a  spirit  of  explanation, —  not 
of  petulant  complaint. 

The  size  of  the  present  work  has  been  greatly  reduced  and 
its  act-ual  intrinsic  value  proportionately  increased,  by  adher- 
ing strictly  to  the  dictionary  form.  In  works  which  are 
divided  into  so-called  "Departments,"  the  same  information 
is  given  over  and  over  again,  in  almost  the  same  words,  imder 
the  different  heads.  Thus  in  one  of  the  $5  books  now  in  the 
market  we  find  the  same  recipe  repeated  at  five  different 
places!  The  absurdity  of  having  "Departments"  for  Black- 
smiths, Gunsmiths,  Machinists,  Painters,  Cabinetmakers,  etc., 
is  seen  at  once  when  we  ask  the  compilers  to  point  out  the 
difference  between  the  process  for  casehardening  as  used  by 
blacksmiths  and  that  employed  by  gunsmiths;  or  the  varnish- 
ing of  wood  as  applied  by  painters  and  by  cabinetmakers. 
Tell  us  how  to  caseharden,  and  place  the  information  under 
the  letter  C;  or,  if  you  choose,  under  the  word  "Iron,"  with 


Viii  PREFACE. 

a  croas-reference  from  "Casehardeu,"  and  then  blacksmiths, 
cutlers,  engineers,  gunsmiths,  machinists,  amateurs,  and  every 
one  else  can  use  it,  and  no  space  is  wasted  by  giving  the  same 
information  in  half  a  dozen  different  places  to  as  many  differ- 
ent artisans.  And  by  a  liberal  use  of  cross-references,  as  is 
done  in  this  work,  no  difficulty  need  be  met  in  finding  any 
particular  item  of  information. 

Before  closing  this  preface  there  is  one  point  concerning 
which  we  can  not  refrain  from  expressing  a  hope, —  and  that 
is  in  regard  to  the  aid  which  amateurs  and  young  people  will 
derive  from  the  volume.  There  are  a  hundred  little  things 
which  may  be  done  in  every  household  to  an  advantage  greater 
than  that  arising  from  any  mere  saving  of  money  or  actual 
convenience.  Boys  who  occupy  themselves  in  the  evenings 
binding  books  and  decorating  glass  will  not  be  likely  to  long 
for  the  saloon  and  the  billiard-table;  and  girls  who  have  some 
pleasant  occupation  will  not  break  their  hearts  because  they 
are  not  taken  every  week  to  the  theater  or  the  concert.  As 
a  protection  to  young  people  there  is  nothing  like  giving  them 
something  to  do  that  will  interest  them.  But  in  order  that 
they  may  be  interested  they  must  be  able  to  do  well  whatever 
they  undertake  to  do  at  all;  and  it  is  hoped  that  this  book 
will  on  many  occasions  aid  them  in  securing  the  necessary 
success. 

JOHN    PHIN. 


INDUSTRIAL  RECIPES 


Abyssinian  Gold. 

This  compound  was  so  called  because  it  was  brought  out 
in  England  during  the  recent  war  with  Abyssinia.  It  consists 
of  copper,  90-74  ;  zinc,  8-33.  This  aUoy,  if  of  good  materials 
and  not  heated  too  highly,  has  a  fine  yellow  color,  resembling 
gold,  and  does  not  tarnish  easily. 

Accidents. 

As  those  who  are  engaged  in  mechanical  pursuits  are  pecu- 
liarly liable  to  accidents,  we  have  introduced  under  the  proper 
heads  (Burns,  Eye,  Fires,  Poisons)  such  brief  suggestions  as 
we  thought  might  prove  vahxable  to  our  readers.  For  more 
minute  dii-ections  in  regard  to  drowning,  severe  cuts,  gunshot 
wounds,  sprains,  dislocations,  etc. ,  we  must  refer  the  reader 
to  some  one  of  the  numerous  treatises  which  have  been  pub- 
lished on  this  subject  .  The  following  general  rules  will  be 
found  useful  in  all  cases  : 

General  Rides.  1.  The  first  thing  to  be  done  in  all  cases 
is  to  send  for  a  physician.  While  the  messenger  is  gone, 
endeavor  to  make  the  patient  as  comfortable  as  possible,  and 
save  him  from  all  exertion,  remembering  that  he  needs  all  his 
strength.  2.  If  there  be  any  severe  bleeding,  stanch  the 
blood  by  means  of  compresses  api^lied  to  the  veins  or  arteries, 
as  the  case  may  be.  3.  If  the  patient  be  insensible,  place  him 
on  the  ground  or  floor,  lying  rather  over  to  or  directly  on  one 
side,  and  with  the  head  slightly  raised.  Remove  necktie, 
collar,  etc. ,  and  unbutton  or  split  open  any  clothing  pressing 


10  liiE  WOEKSHOP  COMPANION. 

tightly  upon  the  neck,  chest,  or  abdomen.  4.  As  a  restora- 
tive, sjjrinkle  the  face  with  cold  water,  and  then  wipe  it  dry. 
Some  cold  water  may  be  given  to  drink,  if  the  power  of  swal- 
lowing be  i^resent,  bxxt  do  not  jaoxir  stimulants  down  the 
throat,  unless  there  be  clear  evidence  that  they  are  needed. 
5.  Do  not  move  the  j^atient,  unless  to  get  him  to  a  jjlace  of 
shelter,  and  when  he  has  reached  it,  make  him  lie  down  and 
seek  quiet.  6.  Allow  no  useless  talking,  either  to  the  patient, 
or  in  his  presence.  7.  Cause  the  bystanders  to  move  back 
and  leave  a  clear  space  of  at  least  ten  feet  in  every  direction 
around  the  patient.  One  of  the  best  restoratives  is  fresh  air, 
and  a  crowd  cuts  this  off  completely. 

Stimulants  should  be  avoided,  except  in  cases  urgently  de- 
manding their  administration,  bxit  they  are  agents  of  much 
value  in  the  treatment  of  that  condition  of  collapse  and  faint- 
ness  which  very  commonly  occurs  after  some  physical  injur- 
ies. The  symi)toms  may  be  briefly  sketched  :  The  face  is 
pale  sjnd  bedewed  with  cold  or  clammy  perspiration  ;  the 
surface  of  the  body  generally  cold  ;  the  pulse  flickering,  per- 
haps hardly  perceptible  ;  the  jDatient  complains  of  the  feeling 
of  faintness,  and  may  have  nausea,  or  even  actual  sicknefis  ; 
the  breathing  is  sighing  and  irregular,  and  for  a  time  there 
may  be  actual  insensibility.  Now  under  such  conditions 
there  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  propriety  of  inducing  re- 
action by  the  administration  of  stimulants. 

Coflfee  given  hot  and  strong,  and  in  small  quantities,  is  a 
safe  and  useful  remedy. 

Spirituous  liquors  are  more  potent  in  their  effects,  and  the 
good  effect  is  produced  more  speedily.  Brandy  is  the  best 
spirit,  given  in  more  or  less  diluted  form  ;  failing  this,  rum 
or  wine  may  be  given.  If  the  spirits  can  be  obtained  only 
from  some  low  grog  shop,  then  whiskey  is  to  be  jireferred  to 
brandy  or  wine,  as  being  less  liable  to  adulteration.  In  ad- 
ministering tliese  articles  the  best  jiractical  rule  is  to  give  a 
small  quantity  at  first  and  watch  the  effect ;  if  the  surface 
becomes  warmer,  the  breathing  deeper  and  more  regular,  and 
the  pulse  at  the  wrist  more  jierceptible,  then  there  can  be  no 
question  as  to  the  advantage  of  giving  even  a  little  more  ;  but 
if  these  signs  of  improvement  are  wanting — if  there  be  in- 
crease of  insensibility,  and  deepening  of  color  about  the  face, 
with  access  of  heat  of  skin — withhold  alcohol  entii-ely  ;  it  '>\  ill 
but  add  to  the  mischief. 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  11 

Alabaster. 

This  material  is  so  common  and  yields  siicli  beautiful  re- 
sults when  worked,  that  a  few  hints  in  regard  to  working  and 
mending  it  may  not  be  out  of  place. 

There  are  two  distinct  chemical  comijounds  to  which  the 
name  of  alabaster  has  been  applied,  the  most  common  being 
the  sulphate  of  lime,  while  that  known  as  oriental  alabaster  is 
a  stalagmitic  carbonate  of  lime,  compact  or  fibrous,  generally 
white,  but  of  all  colors  from  white  to  brown,  and  sometimes 
veined  with  colored  zones  ;  it  is  of  the  same  hardness  as 
marble,  is  used  for  similar  purposes,  and  is  wrought  by  the 
same  means. 

Of  the  common  alabaster  (sulphate  of  lime)  there  are  several 
varieties.  The  finest  white  alabaster  is  obtained  from  Italy, 
but  veiy  excellent  specimens  are  found  near  Derby  in  Eng- 
land. (They  must  not,  however,  be  confounded  with  Derby- 
shire or  fluor  spar  which  is  a  calcic  fluoride. )  The  variegated 
kinds  are  turned  into  pillars,  vases  and  varioiis  ornamental 
forms,  the  tools  used  being  very  simple,  namely,  points  for 
roughing  out,  flat  chisels  for  smoothing,  and  one  or  two 
common  firmer  chisels,  gi'ound  convex  and  concave  for 
curved  lines.  After  being  brought  to  the  proper  shape,  the 
work  is  polished  as  follows  :  Take  a  piece  of  very  fine,  soft 
sandstone,  and  apply  it  with  water  to  the  work  while  in  quick 
motion,  moving  the  stone  all  over  until  there  is  worked  up  a 
body  of  mild.  Then  take  a  clean  rag  and  work  this  sludge 
well  on  the  alabaster,  after  which  wash  the  work  clean. 
Apply  a  rag  charged  with  putty  powder  and  water  until  there 
is  a  gloss  upon  the  work,  after  which  apply  another  rag 
charged  with  a  mixture  of  putty  powder,  soap  and  water  for 
a  short  time,  and  wipe  the  alabaster  diy.  If  carefully  per- 
formed the  polish  will  be  very  beautiful. 

Alabaster  readily  absorbs  gi-ease  and  dirt,  and  as  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  clean,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  it  from 
coming  in  contact  with  anything  that  will  stain  it.  Dust, 
etc. ,  may  be  removed  by  means  of  pure  water  to  which  a  little 
ammonia  has  been  added.  Grease  and  similar  stains  may  be 
removed  by  allowing  the  alabaster  to  lie  for  some  time  in 
contact  with  a  jDaste  of  jjowdered  chalk  moistened  with  a  solu- 
tion of  potash  or  soda  Soap  should  never  be  used  for  clean- 
ing alabaster,  as  it  leaves  a  greasy  stain.     Unlike  marble, 


12  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

alabaster  is  not  affected  by  common  acids,  and  therefore  tliey 
may  be  used  for  extracting  stains  of  common  ink,  etc. 

The  proper  cement  for  uniting  j^ieces  of  alabaster  is  plaster 
of  paris  made  into  a  cream  with  water  as  for  making  ordinary 
casts.  The  surfaces  to  be  joined  must  J^e  moistened  with 
water. 

Alcohol. 

This  familiar  liquid  requires  no  description,  but  it  may  not 
be  out  of  jjlace  to  caution  our  readers  that  failure  in  the  mak- 
ing of  varnishes,  etc.,  very  often  arises  from  the  use  of  alcohol 
which  by  standing  has  lost  its  strength.  Ordinary  alcohol  is 
a  mixture  of  alcohol  and  water,  and  as  the  alcohol  evaporates 
more  readily  than  the  water,  when  the  mixture  is  allowed  to 
stand  for  any  length  of  time  it  becomes  reduced  in  strength, 
that  is  to  say  the  proportion  of  alcohol  becomes  less  and  that 
of  the  water  more. 

Alloys. 

In  making  alloys,  especially  where  the  comjDonent  metals 
vary  greatly  in  fusibility  and  volatility,  the  following  rules 
must  be  observed  : 

1.  Melt  the  least  fusible,  oxidable  and  volatile  first,  and 
then  add  the  others  heated  to  their  point  of  fusion  or  near  it. 
Thus  if  we  desire  to  make  an  alloy  of  exactly  one  part  copper 
and  three  zinc,  it  will  be  impossible  to  do  so  by  putting  these 
l^roj^ortions  of  the  metals  in  a  crucible  and  exjaosing  the 
whole  to  heat.  Much  of  the  zinc  woiild  fly  off  in  vapor  be- 
fore the  copper  was  melted.  First  melt  the  coj^per  and  add 
the  zinc  which  has  been  melted  in  another  crucible.  The 
zinc  should  be  in  excess,  as  some  of  it  will  be  lost  anyway. 

2.  Some  alloys,  as  copj^er  and  zinc,  copper  and  arsenic, 
may  be  formed  by  exposing  heated  plates  of  the  least  fusible 
metal  to  the  vapor  of  the  other.  In  making  brass  in  the 
large  way,  thin  plates  of  copper  are  dissolved  as  it  were  in 
melted  zinc  until  the  j^roper  proportions  have  been  obtained. 

3.  The  surface  of  all  oxidable  metals  should  be  covered 
with  some  protecting  agent,  as  tallow  for  very  fusible  ones  ; 
resin  for  lead  and  tin  ;  charcoal  for  zinc,  copper,  etc. 

4.  Stir  the  metal  before  casting,  and,  if  jjossible,  when 
casting,  with  a  whitewood  stick  ;  this  is  much  better  for  the 
purpose  than  an  iron  rod. 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  13 

5.  If  possible,  add  a  small  portion  of  old  alloy  to  the  new 
one.  If  the  alloy  is  required  to  make  sharji  castings,  and 
strength  is  not  a  very  great  object,  the  propoi-tion  of  old  alloy 
to  the  new  shonld  be  increased.  In  all  cases  a  new  or 
thoroughly  well  cleaned  criicible  shonld  be  used. 

7l/6ato.— Known  also  as  "British  jDlate,"  "electrum,"  etc. 
It  is  a  favorite  material  for  making  articles  that  are  to  be 
electrotyped.  The  best  proportions  of  the  ingi'edients  are 
'•opper,  20  ;  nickel,  4  ;  zinc,  16. 

Alloy  for  filling  holes  in  Iron. — Lead,  9  ;  antimony,  2  ;  bis- 
muth, 1.  This  alloy  is  sometimes  called  "mock  iron;"  it 
exjjands  in  cooling,  so  that  when  a  hole  is  filled  with  the 
melted  alloy,  the  plug  is  not  loose  when  it  is  cold. 

Alloy  for  Uniting  Iron,  Steel  and  Brass. — The  following  com- 
position may  be  cast  on  steel  or  iron,  and  will  adhere  firmly 
thereto.  Its  rate  of  expansion  is  nearer  that  of  iron  and  steel 
than  any  similar  compound.  When  cast  around  iron  or  steel 
therefore,  it  closes  firmly  around  them  and  does  not  become 
loose  by  alternate  expansion  and  contraction.  It  consists  of 
tin,  3  ;  copj^er,  39^  ;  zinc,  7^.  Since  the  last  metal  is  partly 
converted  into  vapor  at  a  high  temperature,  the  above  pro- 
jDortion  may  be  sHghtly  increased. 

Aluminium  5ron2e. —Copper,  90  ;  aluminium,  10.  Eesem- 
bles  gold  in  color,  and  is  very  strong  and  durable. 

Aluminium  Silver. — Coj^per,  70  ;  nickel,  23  ;  aluminium,  7. 
Has  a  beautiful  color  and  takes  a  high  polish. 

Amalgam  for  Silvering  the  insides  of  Globes,  etc. — 1.  Lead, 
2  oz. ;  tin,  2  oz. ;  bismuth,  2  oz. ;  mercury,  4  oz.  Melt  the  first 
three  and  add  the  mercury.  The  glass  being  well  cleaned, 
is  carefully  warmed  and  the  melted  amalgam  is  poured  in  and 
the  vessel  turned  round  until  all  jjarts  are  coated.  At  a  cer- 
tain temperature  this  amalgam  adheres  readily  to  glass. 

2.  Bismuth,  8  ;  lead,  5  ;  tin,  3  ;  mercury,  8.  Use  as  directed 
for  No.  1. 

Amalgam  fm-  Electrical  Machines. — 1.  Tin,  1  oz.  ;  zinc,  1  oz.  ; 
mercury,  2  oz. 

2.  Boettger's  Amalgam. — Zinc,  2  oz.  ;  mercury,  1  oz.  At  a 
certain  temperature  (easily  found  by  experiment)  it  powders 
readily,  and  should  be  kept  in  a  tightly  corked  bottle.  Said 
to  be  very  good. 

Cock  Metal. — Copper,  10  ;  lead,  4.     Used  for  casting  cocks. 

Copped'  Amalgam. — Dissolve  3  oz.  sulphate  of  copper  in 


14  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

water  and  add  1  oz.  siilpliuric  acid.  Hang  clean  iron  scraps  in 
the  solution  until  the  copper  has  fallen  down  in  fine  powder. 
Wash  this  powder,  moisten  it  with  a  solution  of  protonitrate 
of  mercury,  and  then  to  each  ounce  of  the  powder  add  2i  oz. 
mercury,  and  rub  up  in  a  mortar.  When  thoroughly  mixed, 
wash  well  with  hot  water.  This  amalgam  is  easily  moulded, 
adheres  readily  to  glass,  porcelain  and  some  metals,  takes  a 
fine  polish,  and  in  10  to  12  hours  it  becomes  so  hard  that  it 
will  scratch  gold  or  tin.  When  heated  it  softens,  and  may  be 
easily  moulded.  As  it  does  not  contract  on  cooling,  it  has 
been  used  by  dentists  for  filling  teeth,  and  it  might  be  used 
to  good  advantage  for  inlaying  lines  in  dark  wood. 

Protonitrate  of  mercury  is  easily  made  by  dissoh-ing 
mercury  in  nitric  acid. 

Babbitt's  Ant i- Attrition  Metal  fm-  lining  Boxes. — First  melt 
four  pounds  of  copper,  and,  when  melted,  add,  by  degrees, 
twelve  pounds  best  quality  Banca  tin  ;  then  add  eight  pounds 
regulus  of  antimony,  and  then  twelve  pounds  more  of  tin, 
while  the  composition  is  in  a  melted  state.  After  the  copper 
is  melted  and  four  or  five  pounds  of  tin  have  been  added, 
the  heat  should  be  lowered  to  a  dull  red  heat,  in  order  to 
prevent  oxidation  ;  then  add  the  remainder  of  the  metal. 
In  melting  the  composition  it  is  better  to  keep  a  small 
quantity  of  powdered  charcoal  in  the  pot,  on  the  surface  of 
the  metal. 

The  above  composition  is  made  in  the  first  place,  and  is 
called  hardening ;  for  lining  work  take  one  pound  of  the 
hardening  and  melt  with  two  pounds  Banca  tin,  which  pro- 
duces the  very  best  lining  metal.  So  that  the  proportions 
for  lining  metal  are  four  pounds  copper,  eight  regulus  of  anti- 
mony and  ninety-six  pounds  tin. 

The  object  in  first  preparing  the  hardening  is  economy,  for 
when  the  whole  is  melted  together  there  is  a  great  waste  of 
metal,  as  the  hardening  is  melted  at  a  much  less  degree  of 
heat  than  the  copper  and  antimony  separately. 

Belgian  Antifriction  Metals. — For  work  exposed  to  great 
lieat :  Copper,  17  ;  zinc,  1  ;  tin,  0-5  ;  lead,  0-25. 

For  parts  liable  to  much  concussion  :  Copper,  20  ;  zinc,  6  ; 
tin,  1. 

For  parts  exposed  to  much  friction  :  Copper,  20  ;  tm,  4  ; 
antimony,  0-5  ;  lead,  0-25. 

Cheap  Antifriction  Metal. — Equal  parts  of  zinc  and  lead 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  15 

melted  together,  and  well  stin-ed  at  the  time  of  pouring  into 
the  box  or  bearing. 

Fusible  Metals. — These  are  chiefly  used  as  a  means  of  amuse- 
ment, spoons  formed  of  them  melting  readily  in  hot  tea  or 
coffee.  They  have  also  been  used  to  make  plugs  for  steam 
boilers,  the  intention  being  that  they  should  melt  and  allow 
the  steam  to  escape  when  the  pressure  became  too  great.  No. 
4  has  been  used  for  making  casts  of  coins  and  medals,  and  the 
beautiful  French  cliche  moulds  were  made  of  it. 

1.  Newton's  fusible  metal :  Bismuth,  8 ;  lead,  5 ;  tin,  3. 
Melts  with  the  heat  of  boiling  water. 

2.  Onion's  metal  :  Lead,  3  ;  tin,  2  ;  bismuth,  5.  Melts  at 
197  degrees,  Fahrenheit. 

3.  Wood's  fusible  metal :  Bismuth,  15  ;  lead,  8 ;  tin,  4 ; 
cadmium,  3.     Melts  between  150  and  160  deg.  Fahr. 

4.  Cliche  metal :  Bismuth,  8  ;  tin,  4  ;  lead,  5  ;  antimony,  1. 
The  metals  should  be  repeatedly  melted  together  and  poured 
into  drops  or  gi-anulated,  until  'they  are  well  mixed. 

Pewter. — Tin,  4;  lead  1.  Old  "articles  of  pewter  form 
therefore,  a  very  fine  metal  for  solder. 

Queen's  Metal. — Tia,  100  ;  antimony,  8  ;  coj^per,  4 ;  bis- 
Tttuth,  1.     Eesembles  silver  in  aj^pearance. 

Speculum  Metal. — Copper,  32  ;  tin,  15  ;  arsenic,  2.  First 
melt  the  copper,  and  then  add  the  tin  which  should  have 
been  melted  in  a  separate  crucible.  Mis  thoroughly  and  add 
the  arsenic. 

Type  Metal. — Lead,  44  ;  antimony  8  ;  tin,  1. 

Amber. 

Amber  is  principally  obtained  fi'om  the  shores  of  the  Baltic, 
but  it  is  also  found  in  other  parts  of  Europe.  The  most  es- 
teemed is  the  opaque  variety,  resembling  the  color  of  a  lemon, 
and  sometimes  called  fat  amber  ;  the  transparent  pieces  are 
very  brittle  and  vitreous.  The  Gei-man  pijje  makers,  by 
whom  it  is  principally  used,  employ  thin  scraping  tools,  and 
they  burn  a  small  lamp  or  place  a  little  pan  of  burning  char- 
coal beneath  the  amber  to  warm  it  slightly  whilst  it  runs  in 
the  lathe.  This  prevents  it  from  chipping  out,  but  if  it  is  too 
highly  heated  by  friction  it  is  apt  to  fly  to  pieces. 

The  finer  specimens  of  amber,  which  are  sometimes  formed 
into  gems  and  ornaments,  are  ground  on  lead  plates  made  to 
revolve  in  the  lathe,  any  of   the  usual  abrasive  substances 


16  TIIE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

(sand  or  emery)  being  used.  The  facets  are  then  finished  by 
means  of  a  whetstone,  and  polished  with  chalk  mixed  with 
water  or  vegetable  oil.  The  final  finish  is  given  by  means  of 
flannel.  During  the  jsolishing  process  the  amber  becomes 
very  warm  and  highly  electric,  and  if  this  heating  goes  too 
far  it  will  fly  in.  pieces.  The  workmen,  therefore,  cool  it  oft' 
every  now  and  then. 

Ambei',  to  Unite  Broken  Fleces. — Coat  with  linseed  oil  the 
surfaces  that  are  to-  be  joined  ;  hold  the  oiled  jjarts  carefully 
over  a  charccal  fire,  a  few  hot  cinders  or  a  gaslight,  being 
careful  to  cover  up  all  the  rest  of  the  object  loosely  with 
paper.  When  the  oiled  parts  have  begun  to  feel  the  heat  so 
as  to  be  sticky,  press  and  clamp  them  together  and  keep  them 
so  until  nearly  cold.  Only  that  part  where  the  edges  are  to 
be  united  must  be  warmed,  and  even  that  with  care  lest  the 
form  or  polish  of  the  other  parts  should  be  disturbed  ;  the 
jiart  where  the  joint  occurs  generally  requires  to  be  repolished. 

Imitation  Amber. — Of  late,  an  imitation  of  amber,  which 
cannot  be  distinguished  from  the  genuine  article  by  insjsec- 
tion,  has  made  its  appearance  on  the  market.  It  contains 
copal,  camphor,  turpentine,  and  other  ingredients,  becomes 
electric  by  friction,  and  is  used  for  maniifacturing  mouth- 
pieces for  pipes,  cigar-holders,  ornaments,  etc.  The  com- 
position may  be  distinguished  from  genuire  amber  by  its 
lower  melting  point,  as  it  quickly  softens  and  melts  when  laid 
on  a  hot  j^late,  while  amber  requires  a  comparatively  high 
heat ;  and  further  by  the  action  of  ether,  which  softens  the 
imitation  until  it  may  be  scraped  away  with  the  finger-nail, 
while  true  amber  is  absolutely  insoluble  in  cold  ether. 

Annealing  and  Hardening. 

For  the  best  methods  of  annealing,  hardening  and  temper- 
ing steel,  see  article  steel  in  this  volume.  Several  valuable 
facts  in  regard  to  glass  are  also  given  under  glass. 

Cojiper,  brass,  German  silver  and  similar  metals  are  hard- 
ened by  hammering,  rolling  or  wire  drawing,  and  are  softened 
by  being  heated  red  hot  and  i^luuged  in  water.  Copper,  by 
being  alloyed  with  tin,  may  be  made  so  hard  that  cutting  in- 
struments may  be  made  of  it.  This  is  the  old  process  of 
hardenmg  copper,  which  is  so  often  claimed  to  be  one  of  the 
lost  arts,  and  which  would  be  very  useful  if  we  did  not  have 


THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION.  17 

in  steel  a  material  which  is  far  less  costly  and  far  better  fitted 
for  the  making  of  edge  tools. 

Antiseptic  Preparations. 

Specimens  of  natural  history  intended  for  subsequent  ex- 
amination and  dissection  are  best  preserved  in  alcohol,  but  as 
this  is  expensive,  a  saturated  solution  of  100  parts  of  alum 
and  2  parts  of  saltpetre  may  be  used  with  good  effect.  For 
preserving  stuffed  specimens  the  following  are  generally 
used  : 

Arsenical  Soap. — This  is  the  most  powerful  presei-vative  in 
use.  It  is  a  strong  poison,  but  is  invaluable  for  preserving 
skins  of  birds  and  beasts  that  are  to  be  stuffed.  It  is  made 
thiis  :  Powdered  arsenic,  2  oz.  ;  camiohor,  5  oz.  ;  white  soap, 
2  oz.  ;  salt  of  tartar  (sub-carbonate  of  potash),  6  drachms  ; 
powdered  lime,  2  drachms.  Cut  the  soap  in  very  thin  slices 
and  heat  gently  with  a  small  quantity  of  water,  stining  aU 
the  time  with  a  stick.  When  thoroughly  melted  add  the  salt 
of  tartar  and  the  lime,  "^lien  these  are  well  mixed  together 
add  the  arsenic,  which  must  be  carefully  incorporated  with 
the  other  ingredients.  Take  the  mixture  off  the  fire,  and  while 
cooling  add  the  camphor,  previously  reduced  to  powder  by 
rubbing  it  with  a  little  alcohol.  When  finished  the  soap 
should  be  of  the  consistence  of  thick  cream  and  should  be 
kept  in  a  tightly  stopped  bottle. 

Arsenical  Preservative  Powde?'. — This  is  dusted  over  moist 
skins  and  flesh,  and  preserves  almost  any  animal  matter  from 
putrefaction.  It  is  thus  made  :  Ai'senic,  4  oz.  ;  burnt  alum, 
4  oz.  ;  tanner's  bark,  8  oz  ;  mix  and  gi'ind  together  to  a  very 
fine  i^owder. 

Beeswax. 

Beeswax  is  obtained  by  washing  and  melting  the  honey- 
comb. The  product  is  yellow  and  is  freed  from  its  impurities, 
and  bleached  by  melting  it  with  hot  water  or  steam,  in  a 
tinned  copper  or  wooden  vessel,  letting  it  settle,  running  it 
off  into  an  oblong  trough  with  a  line  of  holes  in  its  bottom, 
BO  as  to  distribiite  it  upon  horizontal  wooden  cylinders,  made 
to  revolve,  half  immersed  in  cold  water,  and  then  exposing 
the  thin  ribbons  or  films  thus  obtained,  to  the  blanching 
action  of  air,  light,  and  moisture.  For  this  purpose  the  rib- 
bons are  laid  upon  long  webs  of  canvas  stretched  horizontally 
between  standards,  two  feet  above  the  surface  of  a  sheltered 


18  THE  WOBKSHOP  COMPANION. 

field,  having  a  free  exposure  to  the  sunbeams.  Here  they 
are  frequently  turned  over,  then  covered  by  nets  to  jsrevent 
their  being  blown  away  by  winds,  and  watered  from  time  to 
time,  like  linen  upon  the  grass  field  in  the  old  method  of 
bleaching.  Whenever  the  color  of  the  wax  seems  stationary, 
it  is  collected,  re-melted,  and  thrown  again  into  ribbons  upon 
the  wet  cylinder,  in  order  to  exjoose  new  surfaces  to  the  bleach- 
ing operation.  By  several  rejjetitions  of  these  processes,  if 
the  weather  proves  favorable,  the  wax  becomes  quite  white. 

Black-boards. 

Various  kinds  of  so-called  "  liquid  slating  "  have  been  sold 
for  converting  any  smooth  board  or  wall  into  a  black-board 
for  school  or  other  purjioses.  The  following  give  very  good 
results;  No.  1  is  probably  the  best,  but  is  somewhat  expen- 
sive. 

1.  Take  alcohol  (95  per  cent.),  4  jiints;  shellac,  8  ounces; 
lamp-black,  12  drachms;  ultramarine  blue,  20  drachms;  jaow- 
dered  rotten  stone,  4  ounces;  powdered  pumice  stone,  6 
ounces.  First  dissolve  the  shellac  in  the  alcohol,  then  add 
the  other  ingredients,  finely  powdered,  and  shake  well.  To 
apply  the  slating,  have  the  surface  of  the  board  smooth  and 
perfectly  free  from  grease.  Shake  well  the  bottle  containing 
the  preparation,  pour  out  a  small  quantity  only  into  an  old 
tea-cup,  and  apply  it  with  a  new  flat  varnish  brush  as  rajsidly 
as  possible.  Keep  the  bottle  well  corked,  and  shake  it  up  every 
time  before  pouring  out  the  liquid. 

2.  Instead  of  alcohol  take  a  solution  of  borax  in  water;  dis- 
solve the  shellac  in  this  and  color  with  lamp-black. 

3.  Dilute  silicate  of  soda  (water-glass)  with  an  eqiaal  bulk 
of  water,  and  add  sufficient  lami^-black  to  color  it.  The  lamp- 
black should  be  ground  with  water  and  a  little  of  the  silicate 
before  being  added  to  the  rest  of  the  liquid. 

Brass. 

Next  to  iron,  brass  is  probably  the  most  generally  useful 
metal,  and  as  the  varieties  of  this  alloy  are  almost  infinite,  the 
range  of  purposes  to  which  it  may  be  applied  is  very  great. 
The  color  of  the  alloy  inclines  to  red  when  the  proportion  of 
zdnc  is  small,  gradually  changing  to  yellow,  and  ultimately 
white,  when  the  proportion  of  zdnc  is  very  large.  The  duc- 
tility and  malleability  of  the  alloy  increase  with  the  quantity 
of  copper.      Ordinary  brass  may  be  hammered,  rolled  into 


THE  WORKSHOP  COirP ANION.  19 

sheets  or  drawn  to  wire  while  cold,  provided  it  is  occasionally 
annealed  by  heating  it  to  a  very  low  red  heat.  When  worked 
hot  it  crumbles  to  pieces  tinder  the  hammer  or  between  the 
rolls.  But  the  so-called  yellow  metal,  or  Muntz  metal,  an 
alloy  of  40  parts  of  zinc  and  60  of  cojiper,  may  be  wrought 
while  red  hot,  rolled  into  sheets  and  forged  into  bolts.  Brass 
is  not  so  readily  oxidized  as  copijer,  being  harder,  tougher, 
more  easily  fusible  and  more  fluid  when  molten.  It  s<;>lidifies 
without  becoming  honey-combed,  and  hence  is  suited  for 
making  all  kinds  of  castings;  while  simply  by  the  addition 
of  from  1  to  2  per  cent,  of  lead,  it  is  callable  of  being  readily 
worked  on  the  lathe,  and  may  then  be  filed  without,  as  it 
otherwise  does,  clogging  the  teeth  of  the  file. 

Finishing  Brass. — The  article  having  been  brought  to 
proper  shape  by  means  of  the  lathe,  file,  grindstone  or  other 
means,  the  surface  must  be  rendered  smooth  and  free  fi-oia 
lumps,  utters,  or  scratches.  If  finished  in  the  lathe,  emeiy 
paper  and  oil  may  be  used  to  smooth  the  surface,  the  final 
pcdish  being  imparted  by  rouge.  In  all  cases  where  brass  or 
other  metals  are  polished  by  means  of  abrasive  materials,  great 
care  must  be  taken  that  all  corners  are  left  sharp  and  well- 
defmed,  since  nothing  looks  so  badlv  as  a  corner  which  ought 
to  be  square  but  which  is  worn  and  rounded  in  the  process 
of  polishing. 

In  finishing  brass  work  (and  the  same  remark  appUes  to 
the  polishing  of  other  materials)  great  care  must  be  taken  to 
avoid  making  any  scratches  which  are  deeper  than  the  other 
marks  left  by  the  material  employed.  Such  scratches  are 
very  difficult  to  remove  by  very  "^fine  files  or  by  polishing 
powders,  and  therefore,  whenever  the  work  shows  such 
scratches  it  is  necessaiy  to  go  back  to  the  coarse  file  or  scraper 
and  begin  anew.  (See  articles  on  Polishing  Metals  and  Polish- 
ing Powde7-s.) 

Colm-ing  and  Varnishing  Brass. — To  prevent  the  everyday 
rusting  of  brass  goods,  the  trade  has  long  resorted  to  means 
tor  protecting  the  surface  from  the  action  of  the  atmosphere, 
the  first  plan  of  which  is  to  force  a  change  to  take  place. 
Thus,  if  brass  is  left  in  damp  sand,  it  acquires  a  beautiful 
brown  color,  which,  when  polished  with  a  dry  brush,  remains 
permanent  and  requires  no  cleaning.  It  is  also  possible  to 
impart  a  green  and  light  coating  of  verdigris  on  the  surface 
of  the  brass  by  means  of  dilute  acids,  allowed  to  dry  spon- 


20  TTIE  WOEKSHOP  COMPANION. 

taneoiisly.  The  antique  appearance  thus  given  is  very  pleas- 
ing, and  more  or  less  permanent.  But  it  is  not  always  pos- 
sible to  wait  for  goods  so  long  as  such  i^rocesses  reqiiire,  and 
hence  more  speedy  methods  became  necessary,  many  of  Avhich 
had  to  be  further  protected  by  a  coat  of  varnish.  Before 
bronzing,  however,  all  the  requisite  fitting  is  finished,  and  the 
brass  annealed,  pickled  in  old  or  dilute  nitric  acid,  till  the 
scales  can  be  removed  from  the  surface,  scoured  with  sand 
and  water,  and  dried.  Bronzing  is  then  jjerformed  according 
to  the  color  desired;  for  although  the  word  means  a  brown 
color,  being  taken  from  the  Italian  "  bromino,''  signifying 
burnt  brown,  yet  in  commercial  language  it  includes  all 
colors.      {See  (trtide  on  Bronzing.) 

Browns  of  all  shades  are  obtained  by  immersion  in  solu- 
tions of  nitrate  or  the  perchloride  of  iron;  the  strength  of 
the  solutions  determining  the  depth  of  the  color.  Violets  are 
produced  by  dipping  in  a  solution  of  chloride  of  antimony. 
Chocolate  is  obtained  by  burning  on  the  surface  of  the  brass 
moist  red  oxide  of  iron,  and  polishing  with  a  very  small 
quantity  of  blacklead. 

Olive-green  results  from  making  the  surface  black  by  means 
of  a  solution  of  iron  and  arsenic  in  muriatic  acid,  the  details 
of  the  process  being  as  follows: 

Make  the  articles  bright,  then  dip  in  aqua  fortis,  which 
must  be  thoroughly  rinsed  off  with  clean  water.  Then  make 
the  following  mixture:  Hydrochloric  acid,  6  lbs. ;  sulphate  of 
iron,  i  lb. ;  white  arsenic,  i  lb.  Be  careful  to  get  all  the  in- 
gredients i^ure.  Let  the  articles  lie  in  the  mixture  till  black; 
take  out  and  dry  in  hot  sawdust,  polish  with  blacklead,  and 
lacquer  with  green  lacquer  composed  of  one  part  lac  varnish, 
four  of  turmeric,  and  one  of  gamboge. 

A  steel-gray  color  is  deposited  on  brass  from  a  dilute  boil- 
ing solution  of  chloride  of  arsenic;  and  a  blue  by  careful 
treatment  with  strong  hyposulphite  of  soda. 

Black  is  miich  used  for  optical  brass  work,  and  is  obtained 
by  coating  the  brass  with  a  solution  of  jjlatinum,  or  with 
chloride  of  gold  mixed  with  nitrate  of  tin.  The  Jajianese 
bronze  their  brass  by  boiling  it  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of 
copper,  alum  and  verdigris. 

Success  in  the  art  of  bronzing  greatly  depends  on  circum- 
stances, such  as  the  temperatiire  of  the  alloy  or  of  the  solu- 
tion, the  proportions  of  the  metals  used  in  forming  the  alloy. 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  iM 

and  the  quality  of  the  materials.  The  moment  at  which  to 
withdraw  the  goods,  the  drying  of  them,  and  a  hundred  little 
items  of  care  and  manipitlation,  require  attention  which  ex- 
perience alone  can  impart. 

To  avoid  giving  any  artificial  color  to  brass,  and  yet  to  pre- 
sei-ve  it  from  becoming  tarnished,  it  is  usual  to  cover  properly 
cleaned  brass  with  a  varnish  called  "  lacquer."  To  prejiare 
the  brass  for  this,  the  goods,  after  being  annealed,  pickled, 
scoured  and  washed,  as  already  explained,  are  either  dipped 
for  an  instant  in  pure  commercial  nitrous  acid,  washed  in 
clean  water,  and  dried  in  sawdust,  or  immersed  in  a  mixture 
of  one  part  of  nitric  acid  with  four  of  water,  till  a  white  curd 
covers  the  surface,  at  which  moment  the  goods  are  withdrawn, 
washed  in  clean  water,  and  dried  in  sawdust.  In  the  first 
case  the  brass  will  be  bright;  in  the  latter,  a  dead  flat  which 
is  usually  relieved  by  burnishing  the  prominent  parts.  Then 
the  goods  are  dipped  for  an  instant  in  commercial  nitric  acid, 
and  well  washed  in  water  containing  some  argol  (to  preserve 
the  color  till  lacquered),  and  dried  in  warm  sawdust.  So  pre- 
pared, the  goods  are  conveyed  to  the  lacquer  room,  where 
they  are  heated  on  a  hot  plate  and  varnished. 

The  varnish  used  is  one  of  spirit,  consisting,  in  its  simple 
form,  of  one  ounce  of  shellac  dissolved  in  one  pint  of  alcohol. 
To  this  simi)le  varnish  are  added  such  coloring  substances  as 
red  Sanders,  dragon's-blood,  and  annatto,  for  impai-ting  rich- 
ness of  color.  To  lower  the  tone  of  color,  turmeric,  gambogo, 
satft'on,  Cape  aloes,  and  sandarac  are  used.  The  first  group 
reddens,  the  second  yellows  the  varnish,  while  a  mixture  of 
the  two  gives  a  jjleasing  orange.      {See  article  on  Lacquer.) 

To  Whiten  Brass. — Small  articles  of  brass  or  copper  may 
be  whitened  by  boiling  them  in  a  solution  of  |  lb.  cream  of 
tartar,  2  quarts  of  water,  and  1  lb.  gi-ain  tin  or  any  pure  tin 
finely  divided.  The  tin  dissolves  in  the  cream  of  tartar  and 
is  again  precipitated  on  the  brass  or  copper. 

Depositing  Brass  by  Electricity. — The  first  step  is  to  tuor- 
oixghly  cleanse  the  articles,  either  by  means  of  emery,  or  bj 
laying  them  overnight  in  a  weak  bath  of  sulphuric  acid. 
They  are  then  washed  ofl'  with  water,  a  weak  soda  solution, 
and  then  immersed  as  the  cathode  of  a  bath  consisting  of  2i 
parts  of  sulphate  of  copper,  20  jjarts  sulphate  of  zinc,  and  46 
parts  cyanide  of  potassium,  in  300  parts  of  water.  The  anode 
should  be  two  plates  of  zinc  and  cojJijer  of  equal  size.     The 


22  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

color  of  the  resulting  brass  coating  may  be  modified  by 
varying  the  depth  of  immersion  of  one  or  the  other  of  the 
plates.  The  galvanic  current  should  be  a  strong  one,  and 
the  liberation  of  hydrogen  bubbles  on  the  object  to  be 
brassed  should  be  plentiful.  It  is  important,  however,  to 
note  that  the  objects  should  be  first  coppered  to  insure  a 
strong  attachment  of  the  brass  coating. 

Coating  Brass  with  Coppei-. — The  following  valuable  process 
for  coating  brass  with  copper,  is  given  by  Dr.  C.  Puscher: 
Dissolve  ten  parts,  by  weight,  of  sulphate  of  copper,  and  five 
of  sal-ammoniac,  in  one  hundred  and  fifty  parts,  by  weight, 
of  water.  Place  the  brass,  well  cleaned  and  free  from  fatty 
matter  on  its  surface,  into  this  mixture  ;  leave  it  in  it  for  a 
minute;  let  the  excess  of  liquid  drain  off  first,  and  heat  the 
metal  next  over  a  charcoal  fire,  until  the  evolution  of  am- 
moniacal  vapors  ceases,  and  the  coppery  film  appears  per- 
fect. Wash  with  cold  water  and  dry.  The  coating  of  cop- 
per adheres  firmly. 

deeming  Brass. — Large  articles  of  brass  and  copper  which 
have  become  very  much  soiled  may  be  cleaned  by  a  mixture 
of  rotten-stone  powder  (or  any  ;-  harp  i^olishing  powder)  with 
a  strong  solution  of  oxalic  acid.  After  being  thoroughly 
cleaned,  the  metal  should  be  wiped  off  with  a  cloth  moistened 
with  soda  or  potash,  and  a  very  light  coating  of  oil  should  be 
applied  to  prevent  the  further  corroding  action  of  the  acid. 

A  more  powerful  cleaning  agent,  because  very  corrosive, 
is  finely  powdered  bichromate  of  potash  mixed  with  twice 
its  bulk  of  strong  siilphuric  acid  and  diluted  (after  standing 
an  hour  or  so)  with  an  equal  bulk  of  water.  This  will  in- 
stantly clean  the  dirtiest  brass,  but  great  care  must  be  taken 
in  handling  the  liquid,  as  it  is  very  corrosive. 

Brass  which  has  been  lacquered  should  never  be  cleaned 
with  polishing  powalers  or  corrosive  chemicals.  Wiping 
with  a  soft  cloth  is  sufiicient,  and  in  some  cases  washing  with 
weak  soap  and  water  may  be  admissible.  Dry  the  articles 
thoroughly,  taking  care  not  to  scratch  them,  and  if,  after 
this,  they  show  much  sign  of  wear  or  corrosion,  send  them  to 
the  lacquerer  to  be  refinished. 

Brazing  and  Soldering. 

The  term  soldering  is  generally  applied  when  fusible  alloys 
of  lead  and  tin  are  employed  for  uniting  metals.    When  hard 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  23 

metals,  such  as  copper,  brass  or  silver  are  used,  the  term 
brazing  ^deriverl  from  brass)  is  more  appropriate. 

In  uniting  tin,  copper,  brass,  etc.,  with  any  of  the  soft 
solders,  a  copper  soldering-iron  is  generally  used.  This  tool 
and  the  manner  of  using  it  are  too  well  known  to  need  de- 
scription. In  many  cases,  however,  the  work  may  be  done 
more  neatly  without  the  soldering-iron,  by  filing  or  turning 
the  joints  so  that  they  fit  closely,  moistening  them  with  the 
Boldering  fluid  described  hereafter,  placing  a  piece  of  smooth 
tin-foil  between  them,  tying  them  together  with  binding  wire, 
and  heating  the  whole  in  a  lamp  or  fii*e  till  the  tin-foil  melt-s. 
We  have  often  joined  pieces  of  brass  in  this  way  so  that  the 
joints  were  quite  invisible.  Indeed,  with  good  soft  solder 
almost  all  work  may  be  done  over  a  spirit  lamp  or  even  a 
candle,  without  the  use  of  a  soldering-iron. 

More  minute  directions  may  be  found  in  the  Young  Scien- 
list,  Vol.  I,  page  56. 

Advantage  may  be  taken  of  the  varying  degrees  of  fusi- 
bility of  solders  to  make  several  joints  in  the  same  piece  of 
work.  Thus,  if  the  first  joint  has  been  made  with  fine  tin- 
ner's solder,  there  would  be  no  danger  of  melting  it  in  mak- 
ing a  joint  near  it  with  bismuth  solder,  composed  of  lead,  4; 
tin,  4;  and  bismuth,  1;  and  the  melting  pomt  of  both  is  far 
enough  removed  from  that  of  a  solder  composed  of  lead,  2; 
tin,  1;  and  bismuth,  2;  to  be  in  no  danger  of  fusion  during 
the  use  of  the  latter. 

Soft  solders  do  not  maKb  malleable  joints.  To  join  brass, 
copper  or  iron  so  as  to  have  the  joint  veiy  strong  and  malle- 
able, hard  solder  miist  be  used.  For  this  purpose  equal 
parts  of  silver  and  brass  will  be  found  excellent,  though  for 
iron,  copper,  or  very  infusible  brass,  nothing  is  better  than 
silver  coin  rolled  out  thin,  which  may  be  done  by  any  silver- 
smith or  dentist.  This  makes  decidedly  the  toughest  of  all 
joints,  and  as  a  little  silver  goes  a  long  way,  it  is  not  very 
expensive. 

For  most  hard  solders  borax  is  the  best  flux.  It  dissolves 
any  oxides  which  may  exist  on  the  surface  of  the  metal,  and 
jDrotects  the  latter  from  the  further  action  of  the  air,  so  that 
the  solder  is  enabled  to  come  into  actual  contact  with  the 
surfaces  which  are  to  be  joined.  For  soft  solders  the  l>est 
flux  is  a  soldering  fluid  which  may  be  prepared  by  saturating 
hydrochloric  acid  (spirit  of  salt)  with  zinc.     The  addition  oi 


2i  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

a  little  sal  ammoniac  improves  it.  It  is  said  tliat  a  solution 
of  phosphoric  acid  in  alcohol  makes  an  excellent  soldering 
fluid,  which  has  some  advantages  over  chloride  of  zinc. 

In  using  ordinary  tinner's  solder  for  uniting  surfaces  that 
are  already  tinned — such  as  tinned  plate  and  tinned  coi^i^er — 
resin  is  the  best  and  cheapest  flux,  but  when  surfaces  of  iron, 
brass  or  coj^per  that  have  not  been  tinned  are  to  be  joined  by 
soft  solder,  the  soldering  fluid  is  by  far  the  most  convenient. 
Kesin  possesses  this  important  advantage  over  soldering  fluid, 
that  it  does  not  induce  subsequent  corrosion  of  the  article  to 
which  it  is  applied.  When  acid  fluxes  have  been  apj^lied  to 
anything  that  is  liable  to  rust,  it  is  necessary  to  see  that  they 
are  thoroughly  washed  oif  with  clean  warm  water  and  the 
articles  carefully  and  thoroughly  dried. 

Oil  and  powdered  resin  mixed  togetht^  maKe  a  good  fliix 
for  tinned  articles.  The  mixture  can  be  apj)lied  with  a  small 
brush  or  a  swab  tied  to  the  end  of  a  stick. 

In  preparing  solders,  whether  hard  or  soft,  great  care  is 
requisite  to  avoid  two  faults — a  want  of  uniformity  in  the 
melted  mass,  and  a  change  in  the  jDroportions  of  the  con- 
stituents by  the  loss  of  volatile  or  oxidable  ingredients.  Thus, 
where  copper,  silver,  and  similar  metals  are  to  be  mixed  with 
tin,  zinc,  etc. ,  it  is  necessary  to  melt  the  more  infusible  metal 
first.  Wlien  copper  and  zinc  are  heated  together,  a  large 
portion  of  the  zinc  passes  oft'  in  fumes.  In  preparing  soft 
solders,  the  material  should  be  melted  under  tallow,  to  pre- 
vent waste  by  oxidation;  and  in  melting  hard  solders,  the 
same  object  is  accomplished  by  covering  them  with  a  thick 
layer  of  powdered  charcoal. 

To  obtain  hard  solders  of  uniform  composition,  they  are 
generally  granulated  by  pouring  them  into  water  through  a 
wet  broom.  Sometimes  they  are  cast  in  solid  masses  and 
reduced  to  powder  by  filing.  Silver  solders  for  jewelers  are 
generally  rolled  into  thin  plates,  and  sometimes  the  soft 
solders,  especially  those  that  are  very  fusible,  are  rolled  into 
sheets  and  cut  into  narrow  strips,  which  are  very  convenient 
for  small  work  that  is  to  be  heated  by  a  lamj). 

The  following  simple  mode  of  making  solder  w  ire,  w  hich 
is  very  handy  for  small  work,  will  be  found  useful.  Take  a 
sheet  of  stifl"  writing  or  drawing  pajDcr,  and  roll  it  in  a  coni- 
cal form,  rather  broad  in  comparison  with  its  length.  Make 
a  ring  of  stiff  wire,  to  hold  it  in,  attaching  a  suitable  handle 


THE  WOKKSHOT  COMPANION.  aS 

to  the  ring.  Tlie  point  of  the  cone  may  first  of  all  be  cut  off, 
to  leave  an  orifice  of  the  size  required.  When  filled  with 
molten  solder  it  should  be  held  above  a  pail  of  cold  water, 
and  the  stream  of  solder  flowing  fi-om  the  cone  will  congeal 
as  it  runs,  and  form  the  wire.  If  held  a  little  higher,  so  that 
the  stream  of  solder  breaks  into  drops,  before  striking  the 
water,  it  will  form  handy,  elongated  "tears"  of  metal;  but, 
by  holding  it  still  higher,  each  drop  forms  a  thin  concave 
cup  or  shell,  and,  as  each  of  these  forms  have  their  own 
peculiar  uses  in  business,  many  a  mechanic  will  find  this  hint 
very  iiseful. 

Hard  solders  are  usually  reduced  to  powder  either  by 
granulation  or  filing,  and  then  spread  along  the  joints  after 
being  mixed  with  borax,  which  has  Ijeen  fused  and  powdered. 
It  is  not  necessary  that  the  grains  of  solder  should  be  placed 
between  the  pieces  to  be  joined,  as  with  the  aid  of  the  borax 
they  will  "  sweat "  into  the  joint  as  soon  as  fusion  takes  place. 
The  same  is  true  of  soft  solder  applied  with  soldering  flui<l. 
One  of  the  essential  requisites  of  success,  however,  is  that 
the  sixrfaces  be  clean,  bright,  and  free  from  all  rust. 

The  best  solder  for  platinum  is  fine  gold.  The  joint  is  not 
only  very  infusible,  but  it  is  not  easily  acted  upon  by  common 
agents.  For  German-silver  joints,  an  excellent  solder  is 
composed  of  equal  parts  of  silver,  brass,  and  zinc.  The  proper 
flux  is  borax. 

Bronzing. 

Two  distinct  processes  have  had  this  name  applied  to  them. 
The  first  consists  in  staining  brass  work  a  dark  brown  or 
bronze  color  and  lacquering  it;  the  second  consists  in  par- 
tially corroding  the  brass  so  as  to  give  it  that  greenish  hue 
which  is  peculiar  to  ancient  brass  work.  The  fu'st  is  gen- 
erally applied  to  instruments  and  apparatus,  the  second  to 
articles  of  ornament. 

Bronze  for  Brass  Instruments. — 1.  The  cheapest  and  sim- 
plest is  undoubtedly  a  light  coat  of  plumbago  or  black  lead. 
After  brushing  the  article  with  plumbago  place  it  on  a  clear 
fire  till  it  is  made  too  hot  to  be  touched.  Apply  a  plate 
brush  as  soon  as  it  ceases  to  be  hot  enough  to  burn  the  brush. 
A  few  strokes  of  the  brush  will  produce  a  dark  brown  polish 
approaching  black,  but  entirely  distinct  from  the  well  known 
appearance  of  black  lead.     Lacquer  with  any  desired  tint. 


26  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

2.  Plate  powder  or  rouge  may  be  used  instead  of  plum- 
bago, and  gives  very  beautiful  effects. 

3.  Make  the  articles  clean,  bright  and  free  from  oU.  or 
grease,  then  dip  in  aqua  fortis,  which  must  be  thoroughly 
rinsed  off  with  clean  warm  water.  Then  make  the  following 
mixture :  Hydrochloric  acid,  6  lbs. ;  sulphate  of  iron,  i  lb.  ; 
white  arsenic,  i  lb.  Be  careful  to  get  all  the  ingredients 
pure.  Let  the  articles  lie  in  the  mixture  till  black,  take  out 
and  dry  in  hot  sawdust,  polish  with  black  lead,  and  lacquer 
with  green  lacquer. 

Antique  Bronze. — Dissolve  1  oz.  sal-ammoniac,  3  oz.  cream 
tartar,  and  6  oz.  common  salt  in  1  pint  of  hot  water;  add  2 
oz.  nitrate  of  copper  dissolved  in  i  pint  of  water;  mix  well, 
and,  by  means  of  a  brush,  apply  it  rej^eatedly  to  the  article, 
which  should  be  jslaced  in  a  damp  situation. 

Bronzing  Liquid. — Dissolve  10  parts  of  fuchsine  and  5  parts 
of  aniline-purple  in  100  parts  of  95  per  cent,  alcohol  on  a 
water  bath;  after  solution  has  ifijken  place,  add  5  imrts  of 
benzoic  acid,  and  keep  the  whole  boiling  for  5  or  10  minutes, 
until  the  green  color  of  the  mixttu-e  has  given  j^lace  to  a  fine 
light  bronze-brown.  This  liqui«i  may  be  applied  to  all 
metals,  as  well  as  many  othe*  ^^abstances,  yields  a  very 
brilliant  coating,  and  dries  quickl':.  It  is  aj^plied  with  a 
brush. 

Bronzing  Wood,  Leathei',  Pape^\  etc. — 1.  Dissolve  gum  lac 
in  four  parts  by  volume  of  ijure  alcohol,  and  then  add  bronze 
or  any  other  metal  jiowder  in  the  proportion  of  one  jjart  to 
three  prats  of  the  solution.  The  surface  to  be  covered  must 
be  very  smooth.  In  the  case  of  wood,  one  or  several  coats  of 
Mendon  or  Spanish  white  are  given,  a.nd  the  object  is  care- 
fully polished.  The  mixture  is  painted  on,  and  when  a  suf- 
ficient number  of  coats  have  been  given,  the  object  is  well 
rubbed.  A  sisecial  advantage  of  this  process  is  that  the 
coating  obtained  is  not  dull,  but  can  be  burnished. 

2.  Another  method  is  to  coat  the  object  with  copal  or 
other  varnish,  and  when  this  has  dried  so  far  as  to  become 
"tacky  "  dust  bronze  powder  over  it.  After  a  few  hours  the 
bronzed  surface  should  be  burnished  with  a  burnisher  of 
steel  or  agate. 

Browning  Gun  Barrels.    (See  Guns.) 


THE  WORKS  JOT=  COMPANION.  27 

Burns. 

Those  who  work  in  red-hot  metals,  glass  blowing,  etc.,  are 
sometimes  apt  to  burn  their  lingers.  It  is  well  to  know  that 
a  solution  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  (baking  soda)  promptly  and 
permanently  relieves  all  pain.  The  points  to  be  obsem-ed 
are  :  1.  Bicarbonate  of  soda  must  be  used;  washing  soda 
and  common  soda  are  far  too  iiTitant  to  be  applied  if  the 
burn  is  serious.  2.  The  solution  must  be  saturated.  3.  The 
solution  must  be  ice-cold. 

A  laboratory  assistant  in  Philadelphia  having  severely 
burned  the  inside  of  the  last  joint  of  his  thumb  while  bend- 
ing glass  tubing,  api>lied  the  solution  of  bicarbonate  of  soda, 
and  not  only  was  the  pain  allayed,  but  the  thumb  could  be 
at  once  freely  used  without  inconvenience. 

Case-Hardening.    (See  Iron.) 
Catgut. 

This  material  is  so  valuable  for  many  purposes  that  many 
mechanics  will  find  it  useful  to  know  how  to  make  it,  as  they 
can  then  jDrovide  themselves  with  any  size  and  length  that 
may  be  needed.  The  process  is  quite  simjile.  Take  the  en- 
trails of  sheep  or  other  animals,  remembering  that  fat  animals 
afford  a  very  weak  string,  while  those  that  are  lean  produce 
a  much  tougher  article,  and  thoroughly  clean  them  from  all 
impurities,  attached  fat,  etc.  The  animal  should  be  newly 
killed.  Wash  w^ell  in  clean  water  and  soak  in  soft  water  for 
two  days,  or  in  winter  for  three  days ;  lay  them  on  a  table  or 
board  and  scrape  them  with  a  small  i)late  of  copper  ha\'ing  a 
semicircular  hole  cut  in  it,  the  edges  of  which  must  be  quite 
smooth  and  not  capable  of  cutting.  After  washing  put  them 
into  fresh  water  and  then  let  them  remain  till  the  next  day, 
when  they  are  to  be  well  scrai^ed.  Let  them  soak  again  in 
water  for  a  night,  and  two  or  three  hours  before  they  are 
taken  out  add  to  each  gallon  of  water  2  oz.  of  jjotash.  They 
ought  now  to  scrape  qiiite  clean  from  their  inner  mucous 
coat,  and  will  consequently  be  much  smaller  in  dimensions 
than  at  first.  They  may  now  lie  wiped  day,  slightly  twisted, 
and  passed  through  a  hole  in  a  jiiece  of  brass  to  equalize  their 
size;  as  they  dry  they  are  passed  every  two  or  three  hours 
through  other  holes,  each  smaller  than  the  last.  When  diy 
they  will  be  round  and  well  polished,  and  after  being  oiled 
Jre  fit  for  use. 


28  THE  WOEKSHOP  COMPANION. 

Cements. 

Genei-al  Rules. — Some  years  a^o  the  writer  called  attention* 
to  the  fact  that  quite  as  much  depends  upon  the  manner  in 
which  a  cement  is  used  as  upon  the  cement  itself.  The  l>est 
cement  that  ever  was  compounded  would  prove  entirely 
worthless  if  improperly  ajiplied.  The  following  rules  must 
be  vigorously  adhered  to  if  success  would  be  secured : 

1.  Bring  the  cement  into  intimate  contact  with  the  sur- 
faces to  be  united.  This  is  best  done  by  heating  the  jjieces 
to  be  joined  in  those  cases  where  the  cement  is  melted  by 
heat,  as  in  using  resin,  shellac,  marine  glue,  etc.  Wliere 
solutions  are  used,  the  cement  must  be  Avell  rubbed  into  the 
siirfaces  either  with  a  soft  brush  (as  in  the  case  of  i^orcelain 
or  glass),  or  by  rabbing  the  two  surfaces  together  (as  in  mak- 
ing a  glue  joint  between  two  pieces  of  Avood.) 

2.  As  little  cement  as  possible  should  be  allowed  to  remain 
between  the  united  surfaces.  To  secure  this  the  cement 
should  be  as  liquid  as  loossible  (thoroughly  melted  if  used 
with  heat),  and  the  siirfaces  should  be  pressed  closely  into 
contact  (liy  screws,  "vreights,  wedges  or  cords)  until  the  cement 
has  hardened. 

Wliere  the  cement  is  a  solution  (such  as  gum  in  water)  and 
the  surfaces  are  veiy  absorbent  (siich  as  porous  paper),  the 
surfaces  must  be  saturated  with  cement  before  they  are  brought 
together. 

4.  Plenty  of  time  should  I;  allowed  for  the  cement  to  dry 
or  harden,  and  this  is  particularly  the  case  in  oil  cements 
such  as  copal  varnish,  boiled  oil,  white  lead,  etc.  When  two 
surfaces,  each  half  an  inch  across,  are  joined  by  means  of  a 
layer  of  white  lead  placed  between  them,  six  months  may 
elapse  before  the  cement  in  the  middle  of  the  joint  has  be- 
come hard.  In  such  cases  a  few  days  or  weeks  are  of  no 
account;  at  the  end  of  a  month  the  joint  will  be  weak  and 
easily  se^iarated,  while  at  the  end  of  two  or  three  years  it  may 
be  so  firm  that  the  material  will  pai't  anywhere  else  than  at 
the  joint.  Hence,  where  the  article  is  to  be  used  immediately, 
the  only  safe  cements  are  those  which  are  liquified  by  heat 
and  which  become  hard  when  cold.  A  joint  made  with 
marine  glue  is  fii'm  an  hour  after  it  has  been  made.  Next 
to  cements  that  are  liquified  by  heat,  are  those  which  consist 

*Teclinologist.  Vol.  I  (1870),  page  188. 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  » 

of  substances  dissolved  in  water  or  alcohol.  A  glue  joint  set? 
firmlv  in  twentj-four  hours;  a  joint  made  with  shellac  var- 
nish becomes  dry  in  two  or  three  days.  Oil  cements,  wliiclj 
do  not  dry  by  evai)oration,  but  harden  by  oxidation  (boiled 
oil,  white  lead,  red  lead,  etc.),  are  the  slowest  of  all. 

Aquarium  Cement. — Litharge;  fine,  white,  dry  sand  and 
plaster  of  paris,  each  1  gill;  finely  pulverized  resin,  i  gill. 
Mix  thoroughly  and  make  into  a  paste  with  boiled  linseod 
oil  to  which  dryer  has  been  added.  Beat  it  well,  and  let  it 
stand  four  or  five  hours  before  using  it.  After  it  has  stood 
for  15  hours,  however,  it  loses  its  strength.  Glass  cemented 
into  its  frame  with  this  cement  is  good  for  either  salt  or 
fresh  water.  It  has  been  used  at  the  Zoological  Gardens, 
London,  with  great  success.  It  might  be  useful  for  con 
strueting  tanks  for  other  purposes  or  for  stopping  leaks. 

Armenian  Cement. — The  jewellers  of  Turkey,  who  are 
mostly  Armenians,  have  a  singular  method  of  ornamenting 
watch  cases,  etc.,  with  diamonds  and  other  jirecious  stones 
by  simply  gluing  or  cementing  them  on.  The  stone  is  set  in 
gold  or  silver,  and  the  lower  part  of  the  metal  made  .flat  or 
to  correspond  with  that  part  to  which  it  is  to  be  fixed.  It  is 
then  warmed  gently  and  the  glue  applied,  which  is  so  very 
strong  that  the  parts  thus  cemented  never  separate.  This 
glue,  which  will  firmly  unite  bits  of  glass  and  even  polished 
steel,  and  may,  of  course,  be  applied  to  a  vast  variety  of  useful 
purposes,  is  thus  made  :  Dissolve  five  or  six  bits  of  /?um 
mastic,  each  the  size  of  a  large  jDea,  in  as  much  alcohol  as 
will  suffice  to  render  it  liquid;  in  another  vessel  dissolve  as 
much  isinglass,  previously  a  little  softened  in  water,  (though 
none  of  the  water  must  be  used,)  in  good  brandy  or  rum,  as 
will  make  a  two-ounce  phial  of  very  strong  glue,  adding  two 
small  bits  of  gum  galbanum,  or  ammoniacum,  which  must 
be  rubbed  or  ground  until  they  are  dissolved.  Then  mix 
the  whole  with  a  sufficient  heat,  keep  the  glue  In  a  phial 
closely  stopped,  and  when  it  is  to  be  used  set  the  phial  ;u 
fcoiling  water.  To  avoid  the  cracking  of  the  phial  by  ex- 
posure to  such  sudden  heat,  use  a  thin  green  glass  phial,  find 
hold  it  in  the  steam  for  a  few  seconds  before  ir^mersin^  it  in 
the  hot  water. 

BucklancVs  Cement. — Finely  powdered  white  sugar,  1  jz.-, 
finely  powdered  starch,  3  oz. ;  finely  powdered  gum  arable, 
4  oz.     Eub  well  together  in  a  dry  mortar;  then  little  by  I'ttle 


«0  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

add  cold  water  until  it  is  of  the  thickness  of  melted  glue;  put 
in  a  wide  mouthed  bottle  and  cork  closely.  The  powder, 
thoroughly  ground  and  mixed,  may  be  kept  for  any  length  of 
time  in  a  wide  mouthed  bottle,  and  when  wanted  a  little  may 
be  mixed  with  water  with  a  stiff  brush.  It  answers  ordinarily 
for  all  the  puri^oses  for  which  mucilage  is  used,  and  as  a 
cement  for  labels  it  is  specially  good,  as  it  does  not  become 
Inittle  and  crack  off. 

Casein  Mucilage.— Take  the  curd  of  skim-milk  (carefully 
freed  from  cream  or  oil),  wash  it  thoroughly  and  dissolve  it 
to  saturation  in  a  cold  concentrated  solution  of  borax.  This 
mucilage  keeps  well,  and  as  regards  adhesive  power  far  sur- 
passes the  mucilage  of  gum  arable. 

Casein  and  Soluble  (t/«ss.— Casein  dissolved  in  soluble 
silicate  of  soda  or  potassa,  makes  ^  very  strong  cement  for 
glass  or  porcelain. 

Cheese  Cement  for  mending  Cluna,  e/c— Take  skim  milk 
cheese,  cut  it  in  slices  and  boil  it  in  water.  Wash  it  in  cold 
water  and  knead  it  in  warm  water  several  times.  Place  it 
warm  on  a  levigating  stone  and  knead  it  with  quicklime.  It 
will  join  marble,  stone  or  earthenware  so  tho.t  the  joining  is 
scarcely  to  be  discovered. 

Chinese  Cement  (Schio-lino). — To  three  parts  of  fresh  beaten 
blood  are  added  four  parts  of  slaked  lime  and  a  little  alum; 
a  thin,  pasty  mass  is  produced,  which  can  be  used  imme- 
diately. Objects  which  are  to  be  made  specially  Avater-proof 
are  painted  by  the  Chinese  twice,  or  at  the  most  three  times. 
Dr.  Scherzer  saw  in  Pekin  a  wooden  box  which  had  travelled 
the  tedious  road  via  Siberia  to  St.  Petersburg  and  back, 
which  was  found  to  be  perfectly  sound  and  water-i^roof. 
Even  baskets  made  of  straw  became,  by  the  use  of  this 
cement,  perfectly  serviceable  in  the  transportation  of  oil. 
Pasteboard  treated  therewith  receives  the  appearance  and 
strength  of  wood.  Most  of  the  wooden  pul)lic  buildings  of 
China  are  painted  with  schio-liao,  which  gives  them  an  un- 
pleasant reddish  ajspearance,  but  adds  to  their  durability. 
This  cement  was  tried  in  the  Austrian  department  of  Agri- 
culture, and  by  the  "  Vienna  Association  of  Industry,"  aiul 
in  both  cases  the  statements  of  Dr.  Scherzer  were  found  to 
be  strictly  accurate. 

Chinese  Olue. — Shellac  dissolved  in  alcohol.  Used  for 
joining  wood,  earthenware,  glass,  etc.     This  cement  requires 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  81 

consiflerable  time  to  become  thoroughly  hard,  and  even  then 
is  not  as  strong  as  good  glue.  Its  portability  is  its  only 
recommendation. 

Faraday's  Gap  Cement. — Electrical  Cement. — Resin,  5  oz. ; 
baeswax  1  oz. ;  red  ochre  oi-  Venetian  rod  in  powder,  1  oz. 
Dry  the  earth  thoroughly  on  a  stove  at  a  temperature  above 
212''.  Melt  the  wax  and  resin  together  and  stir  in  the 
powder  by  degi'ees.  Stir  until  cold,  lest  the  earthy  matter 
settle  to  the  bottom.  Used  for  fastening  brass  work  to  glass 
tubes,  flasks,  etc. 

Glasfi,  EartJtenware,  etc.,  Cement /or. — Dilute  white  of  egg 
with  its  bulk  of  water  and  beat  up  thoroughly.  Mix  to  the 
consistence  of  thin  paste  with  powdered  quicklime.  Must 
be  used  immediately. 

Glass  Cement. ^Tiike  pulverized  glass,  10  pai-ts;  powdered 
fluorspar,  20  i^arts;  soluble  silicate  of  soda,  60  parts.  Both 
glass  and  fluorspar  must  be  in  the  finest  possible  conditio  >, 
which  is  best  done  by  shaking  each,  in  tine  powder,  wiuU 
water,  allowing  the  coarser  jDarticles  to  deposit,  and  then  to 
pour  of!"  the  remainder  which  holds  the  finest  particles  in 
suspension.  The  mixture  must  be  made  very  rapidly,  by 
quick  stirring,  and  Avhen  thoroughly  mixed  must  be  at  once 
applied.     This  is  said  to  yield  an  excellent  cement. 

Glue  is  undoubtedly  the  most  important  cement  used  ia 
the  arts.  Good  glue  is  hard,  clear  (not  necessarily  light- 
colored,  however, )  and  free  from  bad  taste  and  smell.  Glue 
which  is  easily  dissolved  in  cold  water  is  not  strong.  Good 
glue  merely  swells  in  cold  water  and  miist  be  heated  to  the 
boiling  point  before  it  will  dissolve  thoroughly. 

Good  glue  requires  more  water  than  poor,  consequently 
you  cannot  dissolve  six  pounds  of  good  glue  in  the  same 
quantity  of  water  you  can  six  jjounds  of  poor.  The  best  glue, 
which  is  clear  and  red,  wOl  require  from  one-half  to  more 
than  double  the  water  that  is  required  with  poor  glue,  and 
the  quality  of  which  can  be  discovered  by  breaking  a  piece. 
If  good,  it  will  break  hard  and  tough,  and  when  broker 
will  be  irregiilar  on  the  broken  edge.  If  poor,  it  will  break 
comparatively  easy,  leaving  a  smooth,  straight  edge. 

In  dissolving  glue,  it  is  best  to  weigh  the  glue,  and  weigh 
or  measure  the  water.  If  not  done  there  is  a  liability  of  get- 
ting more  glue  than  the  water  can  projierly  dissolve.  It  is  a 
good  plan,  when  once  tlie  quantity  of  water  that  any  sample 


82  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

of  glue  will  take  up  lias  been  ascertained,  to  put  the  glue  and 
water  together  at  least  six  hours  before  heat  is  applied,  and 
if  it  is  not  soft  enough  then,  let  it  remain  longer  in  soak,  for 
there  is  no  danger  of  good  glue  remaining  in  jjure  water,  ersn 
for  forty-eight  hours. 

From  careful  exi^eriments  with  dry  glue  immersed  for 
twenty-four  hours  in  water  at  60°  Fah. ,  and  thereby  trans- 
formed into  a  jelly,  it  was  found  that  the  finest  ordinary  glue, 
or  that  made  from  white  bones,  absorbs  twelve  times  its 
weight  of  water  in  twenty -four  hours;  from  dark  bones,  the 
glue  absorbs  nine  times  its  weight  of  water;  while  the  ordi- 
nary glue  made  from  animal  refuse,  absorbs  but  three  to  five 
times  its  weight  of  water. 

Glue,  being  an  animal  substance,  it  must  be  kept  sweet; 
to  do  this  it  is  necessary  to  keep  it  cool  after  it  is  once  dis- 
solved, and  not  in  use.  In  all  cases  keep  the  glue-kettle  clean 
and  sweet,  by  cleansing  it  often. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  burn  it,  and,  therefore,  it 
should  always  be  prepared  in  a  water  bath. 

Carpenters  should  remember  that  fresh  glue  dries  more 
readily  than  that  which  has  been  once  or  twice  melted. 

The  advantage  of  frozen  glue  is  that  it  can  be  made  up  at 
once,  on  account  of  its  being  so  porous.  Frozen  glue  of 
same  grade  is  as  strong  as  if  dried. 

If  glue  is  of  first-rate  quality,  it  can  be  used  on  most  kinds 
of  wood  work  very  thin,  and  make  the  joint  as  strong  as  the 
original.     Wliite  glue  is  only  made  white  by  bleaching. 

Glue,  Liquid. — 1.  A  very  strong  glue  may  be  made  by  dis- 
solving 4  oz.  of  glue  in  16  ounces  of  strong  acetic  acid  by  the 
aid  of  heat.  It  is  semi-solid  at  ordinary  temperatures,  but 
needs  only  to  be  warmed,  by  placing  the  vessel  containing  it 
into  hot  water,  to  be  ready  for  use. 

2.  Dilute  officinal  pJiosphoric  acid  with  two  parts,  by 
weight  of  water,  and  saturate  with  carbonate  of  ammonia; 
dilute  the  resulting  liquid,  which  must  be  still  somewhat 
acid,  with  anothe)'  part  of  distilled  water,  warm  it  on  a  water- 
bath,  and  dissolve  in  it  enough  good  glue  to  form  a  thick, 
syrupy  liquid.     It  must  be  kept  in  well-closed  bottles. 

3.  A  most  excellent  form  is  also  Du77ioulin's  Liquid  and 
Unalterable  Glue.  This  is  made  as  follows :  Dissolve  8  oz.  of 
best  glue  in  i  pint  of  water  in  a  wide-mouthed  bottle,  by 
heating  the  bottle  in  a  water-bath.     Then  add  slowly  2  j  oz. 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  33 

of  nitric  acid,  spec.  gr.  1330,  stirring  constantly.  EiFer- 
Yescenoe  takes  place  iiuder  escape  of  nitix  ""s  acid  gas.  Wlien 
all  the  acid  has  been  added,  the  liquid  is  allowed  to  cool. 
Keep  it  well  corked,  and  it  will  be  ready  for  use  at  any 
moment.  It  does  not  gelatinize,  or  piitrefy  or  ferment.  It 
is  apiDlicable  to  many  domestic  uses,  such  as  mending  china, 
wood,  etc. 

Glue,  Month. — Good  glue,  1  lb.;  ismglass,  4-  02.  Soften  in 
water,  boil  and  add  \  lb.  fine  brown  sugar.  Boil  till  pretty 
thick  and  pour  into  moulds. 

Glue,  Portable.— Vui  a  pinch  of  shredded  gelatine  into  a 
wide-mouthed  bottle ;  j^ut  on  it  a  very  little  water,  and  about 
one-fourth  j^art  of  glacial  acetic  acid;  put  in  a  well-fitting 
cork.  If  the  right  quantity  of  water  and  acid  be  used,  the 
gelatine  will  swell  up  into  worm-like  pieces,  quite  elastic,  but 
at  the  same  time,  firm  enough  to  be  handled  comfortably. 
The  acid  will  make  the  preparation  keep  indefinitely.  When 
required  for  use,  take  a  small  fragment  of  the  swelled  gela- 
tine, and  warm  the  end  of  it  in  the  flame  of  a  match  or  candle; 
it  will  immediately  "run"  into  a  fine  clear  glue,  which  can 
be  applied  at  once  direct  to  the  article  to  be  mended.  The 
thing  is  done  in  half  a  minute,  and  is,  moreover,  done  well, 
for  the  gelatine  so  treated  makes  the  very  best  and  finest  glue 
that  can  be  had.  This  plan  might  be  modified  by  dissolving 
a  trace  of  chrome  alum  in  the  water  used  for  moistening  the 
gelatine,  in  which  case,  no  doubt,  the  glue  would  become 
insoluble  when  set.  But  for  general  purposes,  there  is  no 
need  for  subsequent  insolubility  in  glue. 

Guttn-Percha  Cement. — This  highly  recommended  cement 
is  made  by  melting  together,  in  an  iron  pan,  2  parts  common 
pitch  and  1  part  gutta-percha,  stirring  them  well  together 
until  thoroughly  incorporated,  and  then  pouring  the  liquid 
into  cold  water.  Wlien  cold  it  is  black,  solid,  and  elastic; 
but  it  softens  with  heat,  and  at  100^  Fahr.  is  a  thin  fluid. 
It  may  be  used  as  a  soft  paste,  or  in  the  liquid  state,  and 
answers  an  excellent  purpose  in  cementing  metal,  glass, 
porcelain,  ivory,  &c.  It  may  be  used  instead  of  putty  for 
glazing  windows. 

Iron  Cement  for  dosing  the  Joints  of  Iron.  Pipes. — Take  of 
coarsely  jaowdered  iron   borings,  5  pounds;  jaowdered  sal 
ammoniac,  2  oz. ;    sulphtir,   1  oz. ;    and  water  sufiicient  to 
moisten  it.     This  composition  hardens  rapidly;  but  if  time 


34  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

can  be  allowed  it  sets  more  firmly  without  the  sulphur.  It 
must  be  used  as  sg4.ii  as  mixed  and  rammed  tightly  into  the 
joints. 

2.  Take  sal-amcti^nitto,  2  oz. ;  sublimed  sulphur,  1  oz. ;  cast- 
iron  filings  or  fine  turnings,  1  lb.  Mix  in  a  mortar  and  keej} 
the  powder  dry.  When  it  is  to  be  used,  mix  it  with  twenty 
times  its  weight  of  clean  iron  turnings,  or  filings,  and  grind 
the  whole  in  a  mortar;  then  wet  it  with  water  until  it  becomes 
of  convenient  consistence,  when  it  is  to  be  applied  to  the 
joint.  After  a  time  it  becomes  as  hard  and  strong  as  any 
part  of  the  metal. 

Japanese  Cement. — Paste  made  of  fine  rice  flour. 

Kerosene  Oil  iawps.— The  cement  commonly  used  for 
fastening  the  tops  on  kerosene  lamps  is  plaster  of  paris, 
which  is  porous  and  quickly  penetrated  by  the  kerosene. 
Another  cement  which  has  not  this  defect  is  made  with  three 
parts  of  resin,  one  of  caustic  soda  and  five  of  water.  This 
composition  is  mixed  with  half  its  weight  of  jslaster  of  paris. 
It  nets  firmly  in  about  three-quarters  of  an  hour.  It  is  said 
to  be  of  great  adhesive  power,  not  permeable  to  kerosene,  a 
low  conductor  of  heat  and  but  superficially  attacked  by  hot 
water. 

Labels,  Cement  for. — \.  Macerate  5  parts  of  good  glue  in 
18  parts  of  water.  Boil  and  add  9  parts  rock  candy  and  3 
parts  gum  arable. 

2.  Mix  dextrine  with  water  and  add  a  drop  or  two  of 
glycerine. 

3  A  mixture  of  1  part  of  dry  chloride  of  calcium,  or  2  parts 
of  the  same  salt  in  the  crystallized  form,  and  36  parts  of  gum 
arable,  dissolved  in  water  to  a  projjer  consistency,  forms  a 
mucilage  which  holds  well,  does  not  crack  by  drying,  and 
yet  does  not  attract  sufiicient  moisture  from  the  air  to  become 
wet  in  damp  weather. 

4.  For  attaching  labels  to  tin  and  other  bright  metallic 
surfaces,  first  Ywh  the  surface  with  a  mixture  of  muriatic  acid 
and  alcohol ;  then  apply  the  label  with  a  very  tliin  coating  of 
the  paste,  and  it  will  adhere  almost  as  well  as  on  glass. 

5.  To  make  cement  for  attaching  labels  to  metals,  take  ten 
parts  tragacanth  mucilage,  ten  parts  of  honey,  and  one  part 
flour.  The  flour  appears  to  hasten  the  drying,  and  renders 
it  less  susceptible  to  damp.  Another  cement  that  will  resist 
the  damp  still  better,  but  Avill  not  adhere  if  the  surface  is 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  35 

greasy,  is  made  by  boiling  together  two  parts  shellac,  one 
part  borax,  and  sixteen  parts  water.  Flour  paste  to  which  a 
certain  proijortion  of  nitric  acid  has  been  added,  and  heat 
apialied,  makes  a  lasting  cement,  but  the  acid  often  acts 
upon  the  metals.     The  acid  converts  the  starch  into  dextrine. 

6.  The  Archives  of  Pliannacy  gives  the  following  recipe  for 
damp-proof  mucilage  for  labels :  Macerate  five  parts  of  good 
glue  in  eighteen  to  twenty  parts  of  water  for  a  day,  and  to 
the  liquid  add  nine  i^arts  of  rock  candy  and  three  parts  of 
gum  arable.  The  mixture  can  be  brushed  ui^on  pajier  while 
lukewarm;  it  keeps  well,  does  not  stick  together,  and,  when 
moistened,  adheres  firmly  to  bottles.  For  the  labels  of  soda 
or  seltzer-water  bottles,  it  is  well  to  prepare  a  paste  of  good 
rye  flour  and  glue,  to  which  linseed-oil,  varnish,  and  turpen- 
tine have  been  added,  in  the  propoi'tiou  of  half  an  ounce  each 
to  the  pound.  Labels  prepared  in  the  latter  way  do  not  fall 
off  in  damp  cellars. 

Leathef  and  Metal,  Cernent  for  Uniting. — Wash  the  metal 
with  hot  gelatine;  steep  the  leather  in  an  infusion  of  nut 
galls  (hot)  and  bring  the  two  together. 

Leather-  Belting,  Cement  for. — One  who  has  tried  everything 
says  that  after  an  experience  of  fifteen  years  he  has  found 
nothing  to  equal  the  following:  Common  ghie  and  isinglass, 
equal  parts,  soaked  for  10  hours  in  just  enough  water  to 
cover  them.  Bring  gradually  to  a  boiling  heat  and  add  pure 
tannin  until  the  whole  becomes  ropy  or  ajjpears  like  the 
white  of  eggs  Buff  off  the  surfaces  to  be  joined,  apply  this 
cement  warm,  and  clamp  firmly. 

Litharge  and  Glycefrine  Cement. — A  cement  made  of  very 
finely  powdered  oxide  of  lead  (litharge)  and  concentrated 
glycerine,  unites  wood  to  iron  with  remarkable  efficiency. 
The  composition  is  insoluble  in  most  acids,  is  unaffected  by 
the  action  of  moderate  heat,  sets  rapidly,  and  acquires  an 
extraordinary  hardness. 

Marine  Olue. — The  true  marine  glue  is  a  combination  of 
shellac  and  caoutchouc  in  proportions  which  vary  according 
to  the  purposes  for  which  the  cement  is  to  be  used.  Some  is 
very  hard,  others  quite  soft.  The  degree  of  softness  is  also 
regulated  by  the  proportion  of  benzole  used  for  dissolving 
the  caoutchouc.  Marine  glue  is  more  easily  purchased  than 
made,  but  where  a  small  quantity  is  needed  the  following  re- 
cipe is  said  to  give  very  good  results :  Dissolve  one  part  of 


96  THE  WOEKSHOP  COMPANION. 

India-rubber  in  12  parts  of  benzole,  and  to  the  solution  add 
20  parts  of  powdered  sliellac,  heating  the  mixture  cautiously 
over  the  fire.     Apply  with  a  brush. 

The  following  recipe,  taken  from  New  Bemedies,  is  said  to 
yield  a  strong  cement:  10  parts  of  caoutchouc  or  India-rub- 
ber are  dissolved  in  120  j^arts  of  benzine  or  petroleum  (?) 
naphtha  with  the  aid  of  a  gentle  heat.  "When  the  solution  is 
complete,  which  sometimes  requires  10  to  14  days,  20  jiarts 
of  asphalt  are  melted  in  an  iron  vessel,  and  the  caoutchouc 
solution  is  poured  in  very  slowly,  in  a  tine  stream,  and  under 
continued  heating,  until  the  mass  has  become  homogeneous, 
and  nearly  all  of  the  solvent  has  been  driven  off.  It  is  then 
jjoured  out  and  cast  into  greased  tin  moulds.  It  forms  dark- 
brown  or  black  cakes,  which  are  very  hard  to  break.  Tliis 
cement  requires  considerable  heat  to  melt  it;  and  to  prevent 
it  from  being  burnt,  it  is  best  to  heat  a  capsule  containing  a 
piece  of  it  first  on  a  water-bath,  until  the  cake  softens  and 
begins  to  be  liqiaid.  It  is  then  carefully  wiped  dry,  and 
heated  over  a  naked  flame,  under  constant  stirring,  up  to 
about  300°  F.  The  edges  of  the  article  to  be  mended  should, 
if  possible,  also  be  heated  to  at  least  212^"  F.,  so  as  to  jiermit 
the  cement  to  be  apjDlied  at  leisiire  and  with  care.  The 
thinner  the  cement  is  apjjlied,  the  better  it  binds. 

Metal,  Cement  for  attaching  to  Glass. — Copol  varnish,  15; 
drying  oil,  5;  turpentine,  3.  Melt  in  a  water-bath  and  add 
10  i^arts  slaked  lime. 

Paris  Cement  for  mending  Shells  and  otlm  ^c^me,is. — Giim 
arable,  5;  sugar  candy,  2.     White  lead,  enough  to  color. 

Paste. — The  best  paste  is  made  of  good  flonr,  well  boiled. 
Eesin,  etc.,  do  more  harm  than  good. 

2.  An  excellent  white  i^aste  may  be  made  by  dissolving  2^ 
oz.  gum  arable  in  2  quarts  hot  water  and  thickening  with 
wheat  flour.  To  this  is  added  a  sohation  of  alum  and  sugar 
of  lead;  the  mixture  is  heated  and  stirred  till  about  to  boil, 
when  it  is  allowed  to  cool. 

3.  Four  jiarts,  by  weight,  of  glue  are  allow  ^'^  to  soften  in 
15  parts  of  cold  water  for  some  hours,  and  then  moderately 
heated  till  the  solution  becomes  quite  clear.  65  parts  of 
boiling  water  are  now  added  with  stirring.  In  another  vessel 
80  parts  of  starch  paste  are  stirred  up  with  20  jiarts  of  cold 
water,  so  that  a  thin  milky  fluid  is  obtained  without  lumps. 
tnto  this  the  boiling  glue  solution  is  poured,  with  constant 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  «7 

Btimng,  and  the  whole  is  kept  at  the  boiling  temperature. 
After  cooling,  10  drops  of  carbolic  acid  are  added  to  th« 
paste.  This  paste  is  of  extraordinary  adhesive  power,  and 
may  be  used  for  leather,  paper,  or  cardboard  with  great  suc- 
cess. It  must  be  preserved  in  closed  bottles  to  prevent 
evaporation  of  the  water,  and  will,  in  this  way,  keep  good 
for  years. 

4.  Eice  flour  makes  an  excellent  paste  for  fine  paper  work. 

5.  Gum  tragacanth  and  water  make  an  ever  ready  paste. 
A  few  drops  of  any  kind  of  acid  should  be  added  to  the  water 
before  putting  in  the  gum,  to  prevent  fermentation.  This 
paste  will  not  give  that  semi-transparent  look  to  thin  paper, 
that  gum  arable  sometimes  gives,  when  used  for  mucilaga 

Porcelain  Cement. — Add  plaster  of  paris  to  a  strong  solu- 
tion of  alum  till  the  mixture  is  of  the  consistency  of  cream. 
It  sets  readily,  and  is  said  to  unite  glass,  metal,  porcelain, 
etc. ,  quite  firmly.  It  is  probably  suited  for  cases  in  which 
large  rather  than  small  surfaces  are  to  be  united. 

Soft  Cement. — Melt  yellow  beeswax  with  its  weight  of  tur- 
pentine and  color  with  finely  powdered  Venetian  red.  When 
cold  it  has  the  hardness  of  soaj),  but  is  easily  softened  and 
moulded  with  the  fingers,  and  for  sticking  things  together 
temporarily  it  is  invaluable. 

Soluble  Glass  Cements. — When  finely-pulverized  chalk  is 
stirred  into  a  solution  of  soluble  glass  of  30°  B  until  the 
mixture  is  fine  and  plastic,  a  cement  is  obtained  which  will 
harden  in  between  six  and  eight  hours,  possessing  an  ex- 
traordinary durability,  and  alike  applicable  for  domestic  and 
industrial  purposes.  If  any  of  the  following  substances  be 
employed  besides  chalk,  differently-colored  cements  of  the 
same  general  character  are  obtained : — 1.  Finely  pulverized  or 
levigated  stibnite  (grey  antimony,  or  black  sulphide  of  anti- 
mony) will  produce  a  dark  cement,  which,  after  burnishing 
with  an  agate,  will  present  a  metallic  appearance.  2.  Pulrer- 
ized  cast  iron,  a  grey  cement.  3.  Zinc  dust  (so-called  zino 
grey),  an  exceediagly  hard  grey  cement,  which,  after  burnish- 
ing, will  exhibit  the  white  and  brilliant  appearance  of  metallic 
zinc.  This  cement  may  be  employed  with  advantage  in 
mending  ornaments  and  vessels  of  zinc,  sticking  alike  well  to 
metals,  stone,  and  wood.  4.  Carbonate  of  copper,  a  bright 
green  cement.  5.  Sesquioxide  of  chromium,  a  dark  green 
cement.      6.  Thenard's  blue  (cobalt  blue),  a  blue  cement 


38  THE  WOEKSHOP  COMPANION. 

7.    Minium,    an   orange-colored   cement.       8.  Vermilion,  . 
splendid  red  cement.     9.  Carmine  red,  a  violet  cement. 

SoreTs  Ceme^it. — Mix  commercial  zinc  white  with  \  its  bulk 
of  fine  sand,  adding  a  solution  of  chloride  of  zinc  of  1'26 
specific  gravity,  and  rub  the  whole  thoroughly  together  in  a 
mortar.  The  mixture  must  be  ajjplied  at  once,  as  it  hardens 
very  quickly. 

Steam  Boiler  Cement. — Mix  two  parts  of  finely  powdered 
litharge  with  one  part  of  very  fine  sand,  and  one  part  of 
quicklime  which  has  been  allowed  to  slack  sjoontaneously 
by  exposure  to  the  air.  This  mixture  may  be  kept  for  any 
length  of  time  without  injuring.  In  using  it  a  portion  is 
mixed  into  paste  with  linseed  oil,  or,  still  better,  boiled  lin- 
seed oil.  In  this  state  it  must  be  quickly  applied,  as  it  soon 
becomes  hard. 

Transpnreiit  Cement  for  Glass. — Fine  Canada  balsam. 

Turner  s  Cement. — Melt  1  lb.  of  resin  in  a  pan  over  the  fire, 
and,  when  melted,  add  a  i  of  a  lb.  of  j^itch.  While  these 
are  boiling  add  brick  dust  until,  by  dropping  a  little  on  a 
cold  stone,  you  think  it  hard  enough.  In  winter  it  may  be 
necessary  to  add  a  little  tallow.  By  means  of  this  cement  a 
piece  of  Avood  may  be  fastened  to  the  chuck,  which  will  hold 
when  cool;  and  when  the  work  is  finished  it  may  be  removed 
by  a  smart  stroke  with  the  tool.  Any  traces  of  the  cement 
may  be  removed  from  the  work  l\y  means  of  benzine. 

WoUastou's  mate  Cement  for  large  objects. — Beeswax,  1  oz. ; 
resin,  4  oz. ;  powdered  plaster  of  paris,  5  oz.  Melt  together. 
To  use,  warm  the  edges  of  the  specimen  and  use  the  ceme'it 
warm. 

Copper. 

Coi^per  is  probably  the  most  difficult  of  all  the  metals  to 
work  by  the  file  or  lathe,  but  pure  copper  may  be  cut  like 
cheese  with  a  graver,  and  consequently  it  is  extensively  used 
for  plates  where  the  number  of  impressions  reqiiired  is  not 
very  large.  In  filing  copj^er  the  file  should  be  well  chalked, 
and  in  cutting  it  in  the  lathe  use  plenty  of  soajjy  water,  and 
let  the  solution  of  soap  be  jjretty  strong.  In  polishing  copper 
it  will  be  found  that  owing  to  its  softness,  it  burnishes  easily 
(see  article  on  jxAlshing  metals),  but  where  it  is  polished  by 
means  of  abrasive  processes,  that  is,  by  the  use  of  powders 
which  grind  it  or  wear  it  down,  great  care  must  be  taken  to 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPAJ^ION.  «9 

have  the  jiowders  free  from  jjarticles  which  are  larger  than 
the  average,  as  these  woukl  be  sure  to  scratch  the  metal, 
owing  to  its  softness.  For  polishing  copper  by  abrasion, 
only  the  softer  polishing  powders  should  be  used,  such  as 
rotten  stone,  prepared  chalk,  and  soft  rouge.  These  are  used 
with  oil  at  first,  but  the  last  touches  are  given  dry. 

Coi:)per  may  be  welded  by  the  use  of  proper  fluxes.  The 
best  comijound  for  this  purjiose  is  a  mixture  of  one  part  of 
phosphate  of  soda  and  two  parts  of  boracic  acid.  This  weld- 
ing powder  should  be  strewn  on  the  surface  of  the  copper  at 
a  I'ed  heat;  the  pieces  should  then  be  heated  up  to  a  full 
cherry  red,  or  yellow  heat,  and  brought  immediately  under 
the  hammer,  when  they  may  be  as  readily  welded  as  iron 
itself.  For  instance,  it  is  possible  to  weld  together  a  small 
rod  of  coj^per  which  has  been  broken;  the  ends  should  be 
beveled,  laid  on  one  another,  seized  by  a  pair  of  tongs,  and 
placed  together  with  the  latter  in  the  fire  and  heated;  the 
welding  powder  should  then  be  strewn  on  the  ends,  which, 
after  a  further  heating,  may  be  welded  so  soundly  as  to  bend 
and  stretch  as  if  they  had  never  been  broken.  It  is  necessary 
to  carefully  observe  two  things  in  the  course  of  the  ojieration. 
First,  the  greatest  care  must  be  taken  that  no  charcoal  or 
other  solid  carbon  comes  into  contact  with  the  points  to  be 
welded,  as  otherwise  phosphide  of  copper  would  be  formed, 
which  would  cover  the  surface  of  the  copi^er  and  effectually 
prevent  a  weld.  In  this  case  it  is  only  by  careful  treatment 
in  an  oxidizing  fire  and  a  plentiful  application  of  the  welding 
powder  that  the  copper  can  again  be  welded.  It  is,  there- 
fore, advisable  to  heat  the  copper  in  a  flame,  as,  for  instance, 
a  gas  flame.  Second,  as  coj)per  is  a  much  softer  metal  than 
iron,  it  is  miich  softer  at  the  required  heat  than  the  latter  at 
its  welding  heat,  and  the  parts  welded  can  not  offer  any  great 
resistance  to  the  blows  of  the  hammer.  They  must,  there- 
fore, be  so  shaped  as  to  be  enabled  to  resist  such  blows  as 
well  as  may  be,  and  it  is  also  well  to  use  a  wooden  hammer, 
which  does  not  exercise  so  great  a  force  on  account  of  its 
lightness.  Mr.  Kust,  the  inventor  of  this  jarocess,  states  that, 
as  long  ago  as  1854,  he  welded  strips  of  copper  plates  to- 
gether and  drew  them  into  a  rod;  he  also  made  a  chain,  the 
links  of  which  had  been  made  of  pretty  thick  wire  and 
welded. 

Coppering  Iron  or  Steel. — The  following  process  is  said  to 


40  THE  WORKSHOj:  ^OMPANION. 

give  very  good  results :  First  make  the  article  entirely  bright 
by  file,  scratch  brush,  or  any  of  the  usual  modes.  Apply  to 
the  surface  a  coating  of  cream  of  tartar,  then  sprinkle  the 
surface  with  a  saturated  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper,  and 
rub  with  a  hard  brush.  The  coating  of  copper  deposited  on 
the  iron  is  said  to  be  very  even  and  durable. 

Coral,  Artificial. 

Twigs,  raisin  stalks,  and  any  objects  having  the  general 
outline  of  branched  coral,  may  be  made  to  resemble  that 
material  by  being  dipped  in  a  mixtiire  of  4  parts  resin,  3 
jiarts  beeswax  and  2  parts  vermillion,  melted  together  and 
thoroughly  mixed.  The  effect  is  very  pretty,  and  for  orna- 
mental work  such  imitation  coral  is  very  useful. 

Cork. 

Corks  are  so  important  in  many  operations,  that  a  little 
knowledge  of  the  best  methods  of  working  them  is  indispen- 
sable. They  form  the  best  material  for  a  holder  for  sand- 
paper in  rubbing  down  flat  surfaces,  and  they  afford  the 
simplest  and  most  effectual  means  of  closing  bottles  in  many 
cases.  Cork  is  easily  cut  by  means  of  a  thin,  sharp  knife, 
which  should  not  have  a  smooth  edge,  however,  but  one  set 
on  a  dry  stone,  moderately  fine.  After  having  been  cut  to 
nearly  the  right  form,  corks  are  easily  worked  to  the  proper 
size  and  shajDe  by  means  of  tiles.  Holes  are  easily  made 
through  corks  by  means  of  tin  or  brass  tubes,  which  must  be 
thin  and  well  shari)ened  on  the  edge  by  means  of  a  file.  The 
sharp  edge  being  slightly  oiled,  is  pressed  against  the  cork 
and  at  the  same  time  turned  round,  when  it  quickly  cuts  a 
smooth  straight  hole  throiigh  the  material. 

When  it  is  desired  to  make  corks  air-tight  and  v.ater-tight, 
the  best  method  is  to  allow  them  to  remain  for  about  five 
minutes  beneath  the  surface  of  melted  parafiine  in  a  suitable 
vessel,  the  corks  being  held  down  either  by  a  perforated  lid, 
wire  screen,  or  similar  device.  Corks  thus  prepared  can  be 
easily  cut  and  bored,  have  a  perfectly  smooth  exterior,  may 
be  introduced  and  removed  from  the  neck  of  a  flask  with 
ease,  and  make  a  perfect  seal. 

Crayons  for  Black-Boards. 

Spanish  white,  which  is  simply  very  fine  chalk,  is  mixed 
with  water  and  just  enough  flour  paste  to  cause  the  particles 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  41 

to  adhere  wlien  dry.  If  too  mucli  paste  is  used,  the  crayons 
will  be  too  hard  and  will  not  mark  well;  if  too  soft,  they  will 
cnimlile.  The  proper  proportions  should  be  found  by  ex- 
periment, as  different  qualities  of  flour  possess  different 
adhesive  properties.  The  wet  chalk  may  be  formed  into 
proper  shape  by  means  of  paper  moulds,  or  it  may  be  rolled 
out  to  the  required  shajie  and  cut  into  suitable  lengths. 

For  making  drawings  of  objects  of  natural  history,  etc.,  it 
is  frequeuely  desirable  to  use  colored  crayons,  the  most  use- 
ful colors  l)eing  gi-een,  red  and  yellow.  A  little  chea}),  dry 
paint  mixed  with  the  chalk  will  give  the  desired  tints. 

Crayons  which  ai-e  not  too  hard  to  make  a  good  clear  mark, 
are  veVy  apt  to  be  brittle  and  unable  to  stand  any  pressure 
on  the  point  when  they  are  of  sufficient  length  to  be  handled 
easily.  If  the  crayons  are  made  true  cylinders,  they  may  be 
covered  with  paper,  wliich  will  serve  the  same  purpose  as  the 
wood  in  the  common  lead  pencil,  and  may  be  cut  away  as 
wanted.  The  common  crayons,  being  conical,  are  not  so 
easily  covered,  but  may,  nevertheless,  be  wrapped  with  a 
long'  narrow  slip  of  paper  so  as  to  be  strong  and  durable. 

Curling. 

A  method  of  finishing  such  metals  as  brass,  German  silver, 
etc. ,  which  if  well  done,  gives  a  very  handsome  appearance 
to  the  work.  The  work  must  first  be  carefully  finished  so  as 
to  have  no  scratches,  as  these  would  show  through  the  curl- 
ing and  destroy  the  effect.  After  the  metal  has  been  finished 
with  fine  files,  emery  paper,  Water-of-Ayr  stone,  and  finally 
the  finest  rotten  stone  applied  by  means  of  a  buff,  the  curling 
is  produced  liy  means  of  a  stick  of  charcoal  moved  in  circular 
sweeps  over  the  surface,  which  should  be  kept  well  moistened 
with  water.  After  the  desired  effect  has  been  produced,  the 
metal  is  lacquered. 

We  have  seen  "curling"  applied  to  surfaces  of  considera- 
ble extent,  but  in  such  cases  the  effect  never  seemed  to  us  as 
good  as  in  the  case  of  very  small  articles.  If  the  sweeps  are 
large  they  give  a  coarse  appearance  to  the  work,  while  a 
large  surface  covered  with  small  sweeps  has  a  confused 
appearance. 

Cuticle,  Liquid, 

Collodion,  or  gun  cotton  dissolved  in  sulphuric  ether,  haa 
no  equal  as  a  covering  for  protecting  burns,  cuts  or  wounds 


42  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

from  the  air.     It  soon  dries,  and  forms  a  skin-like  protection 
that  adheres  with  great  tenacity. 

Etching. 

Etching  is  the  art  of  cutting  lines  in  any  material  by  means 
of  some  corrosive  agent.  Thus,  since  nitric  acid  dissolves 
copper,  if  we  confine  the  action  of  the  acid  to  certain  lines, 
we  can  cut  grooves  of  considerable  depth  in  the  copper,  and 
these  grooves  may  be  used  either  as  lines  from  which  we  may 
print,  or  as  marks  similar  to  writing.  Iron,  brass,  steel, 
silver,  ivory,  glass,  marble,  and  many  other  materials  may  be 
cut  in  the  same  way,  by  the  action  of  suitable  acids.  As  a 
simple  and  easily  learned  method  of  forming  engraved  plates 
from  which  to  jjrint,  the  art  of  etching  is  one  of  the  most 
eligible  for  yoiing  jiersons.  The  materials  required  are  few 
and  simple,  great  freedom  of  outline  may  be  securedj  and  the 
results  are  very  pleasing. 

Copper  is  the  metal  usually  employed  for  etching  draw- 
ings. It  is  furnished  by  the  dealers  in  plates  perfectly  smooth 
and  flat,  and  of  any  desired  size.  The  surface  is  first  coated 
with  a  wax  or  varnish,  for  which  there  are  many  recipes,  the 
following  being  probably  the  best:  Take  of  beeswax  and 
asi^halt,  2  parts  each;  Burgundy  pitch  and  black  pitch,  1 
part  each.  Melt  the  wax  and  the  pitch  in  an  earthen  vessel 
and  add  the  asphalt  by  degrees  in  fine  powder.  Expose  to 
heat  until  a  droj?  which  has  been  cooled,  breaks  by  bending 
back  and  forth  two  or  three  times  in  the  fingers. 

A  second,  which  is  simpler  and  said  to  be  very  good,  is  com- 
posed of  asphalt,  2  oz. ;  Burgundy  pitch,  1  oz. ;  beeswax,  Ij  oz. 
A  transparent  varnish  may   be  composed  of  resin,  1  oz. ; 
beeswax,  2  oz.     Melt  together. 

The  plate  having  been  polished  and  burnished,  is  grasped 
by  one  corner  in  a  hand-vice  and  warmed  over  a  spirit  lamp 
until  it  will  melt  the  varnish  or  etching  ground,  which  is 
then  spread  over  its  surface  very  thinly  by  means  of  a  ball  or 
pledget  of  cotton  tied  in  a  jiiece  of  silk.  Before  the  ground 
has  quite  cooled  and  solidified,  it  is  blackened  by  the  smoke 
of  a  lamp  or  candle.  The  blackening  is  necessary  so  that  *he 
design  may  be  clearly  seen  as  it  is  drawn  in. 

The  design  may  be  either  draAvn  directly  on  the  j^late,  or 
transferred  by  means  of  transfer  paper.  Or  it  may  be  fli-st 
drawn   on  the  etching  ground  by  means  of  a  very  finely 


THE  WOEKSHOP  COMPANION.  13 

pointed  camel-hair  pencil,  using,  of  course,  a  white  color  dis- 
solved in  some  medium  which  will  adhere  to  the  ground. 
^.Vater  is  useless.     Tiu'i^entine  answers  very  well. 

In  whatever  way  the  design  is  drawn  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  it  must  next  be  cut  in  by  means  of  a  steel  point, 
good  sewing  needles  making  excellent  ones,  and  different 
sizes  being  used  according  to  the  strength  of  the  lines  required. 
The  lines  having  been  traced  through  the  varnish  so  as  to 
expose  a  bright  copper  surface,  the  next  step  is  to  make  a 
border  of  wax  around  the  plate  so  that  the  acid  will  not  run 
off.  The  wax  used  for  making  the  border  is  a  mixture  of 
beeswax,  resin  and  tallow,  of  such  a  consistency  that  it  Avill 
be  easily  moulded  by  the  fingers.  The  border  should  be 
nearly  half  an  inch  iiigh,  thus  converting  the  plate  into  a 
shallow  dish.  This  dish  is  half  filled  with  a  mixture  of  one 
l^art  of  nitric  acid  and  three  parts  of  water.  After  this  plate 
has  been  exposed  for  a  few  minutes  to  this  liquid,  the  acid  is 
poured  off,  the  j^late  washed  with  pure  water  and  allowed  to 
dry.  All  the  very  delicate  lines  are  then  "  stopi^ed  "  out,  as 
it  is  called,  by  being  coated  by  means  of  a  camel-hair  pencil 
with  varnish  dissolved  in  turi^entine.  When  this  has  dried, 
the  acid  is  poured  back  again  and  allowed  to  act  on  the  coarser 
lines,  and  the  more  frequently  this  process  is  introduced,  the 
more  perfect  will  be  the  ultimate  result. 

When  the  lines  have  all  been  etched  to  the  required  depth, 
the  varnish  is  removed  by  warming  the  plate  and  washing 
with  turpentine.  A  copper-plate  press  is  used  to  take  off  the 
impressions. 

The  process  of  etching  is  very  simple,  and  the  results  very 
satisfactory.  As  an  artistic  recreation,  it  is  capable  of  afford' 
ing  a  great  deal  of  pleasure. 

The  art  of  cutting  names,  etc. ,  on  steel  tools  and  other  ob- 
jects, is  very  simple  and  useful.  The  following  givtr  ;rood 
results : 

Etching  Liquid  for  Steel. — Mix  1  oz.  sulphate  of  copper,  ^ 
oz.  of  alum,  and  i  a  teaspoonful  of  salt  reduced  to  powder, 
with  1  gill  of  vinegar  and  20  drops  of  nitric  acid.  This  liquid 
may  be  used  either  for  eating  deeply  into  the  metal  or  for 
imparting  a  beautiful  frosted  appearance  to  the  surface, 
according  to  the  time  it  is  allowed  to  act.  Cover  the  parts 
you  wish  to  protect  from  its  influence  with  beeswax,  tallow, 
or  some  similar  substance. 


U  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

Etching  on  Glass. — Fancy  work,  ornamental  figures,  letter- 
ing and  monograms,  are  most  easily  and  neatly  cut  into  glass 
by  the  sand  blast  process,  a  simple  apparatus  for  whicli  will 
be  found  described  in  the  Yotmg  Scientist.  Lines  and  figures 
on  tubes,  jars,  etc.,  may  be  deejily  etched  by  smearing  the 
surface  of  the  glass  with  beeswax,  drawing  the  lines  with  a 
steel  point,  and  exposing  the  glass  to  the  fumes  of  hydro- 
fluoric acid.  This  acid  is  obtained  by  putting  powdered 
fluorspar  into  a  tray  made  of  sheet  lead  and  pouring  sulphuric 
acid  on  it,  after  which  the  tray  is  slightly  warmed. 

The  proportions  will,  of  course,  vary  with  the  purity  of 
the  materials  used,  fluorspar  (except  when  in  crystals)  being 
generally  mixed  with  a  large  quantity  of  other  matter,  but  this 
point  need  not  affect  the  success  of  the  operation.  Enough 
acid  to  make  a  thin  paste  with  the  powdered  spar  will  be 
about  right.  Where  a  lead  tray  is  not  at  hand,  the  powdered 
spar  may  be  poured  on  the  glass,  and  the  acid  poured  on  it 
and  left  for  some  time.  As  a  general  rule,  the  marks  are 
opaque,  but  sometimes  they  are  transparent.  In  this  case, 
cut  them  deeply  and  fill  up  with  black  varnish,  if  they  are 
required  to  be  very  plain,  as  in  the  case  of  graduated  vessels. 

Liquid  hydrofluoric  acid  has  been  recommended  for 
etching,  but  as  it  leaves  the  surface  on  which  it  acts  trans- 
parent, it  is  not  suitable. 

The  agent  which  corrodes  the  glass  is  a  gas  which  does 
not  remain  in  the  mixture  of  fluorspar  and  sulphuric  acid, 
but  passes  off  in  the  vapor.  To  mix  fluorspar  and  sulphuric 
acid  and  keep  it  in  leaden  bottles  under  the  idea  that  the 
mixture  is  hydroflucn-ic  add,  is  a  gross  mistake.  Such  an 
idea  could  enter  into  the  head  of  none  but  the  compiler  of  a 
cyclopaedia  of  recijjes. 

Eye,  Accidents  to. 

Those  who  are  engaged  in  mechanical  operations  run  great 
risk  of  accidents  to  the  eye,  and  therefore  a  few  hints  in  re- 
gard to  this  subject  may  be  valuable  to  our  readers. 

Minute  particles  of  dust,  sand,  cinders,  small  flies,  etc., 
are  best  removed  by  means  of  a  camel-hair  brush  or  pencil, 
moistened  but  not  wet,  and  drawn  to  a  fine  point.  The  brush 
will  absorb  the  moisture  of  the  eye  and  with  it  will  take  up 
the  mote,  provided  the  latter  has  not  been  driven  into  the 
eyeball.     Where  a  brush  is  not  at  hand,  a  thin  strip  of  soft 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  45 

paper,  rolled  spirally  so  as  to  form  a  fine  point,  is  the  best 
thing. 

The  ragged  chips  and  splinters  which  are  separated  during 
the  processes  of  tvirning  and  chipping  off,  often  find  their 
way  into  the  eye,  and  are  sometimes  very  difficult  to  remove. 
The  use  of  magnets  has  been  recommended,  but  even  the 
strongest  magnet  is  entirely  inefficient,  if  the  siDliaters  be 
imbedded.  In  such  a  case,  if  the  operator  be  gifted  with  a 
steady  hand  and  firm  nerves,  the  best  instrument  for  remov- 
ing the  oftending  pai-ticle  is  a  good,  sharp  pen-knife.  Indeed, 
we  prefer  it  in  every  case  as  being  far  superior  to  softer 
articles.  In  simple  cases  let  the  patient  stand  up  with  hia 
head  firmly  held  against  a  door-post;  turn  back  the  eyelids 
with  the  fingers;  find  the  speck,  and  by  passing  the  knife 
gently  but  firmly  over  the  ball,  you  may  sweep  it  up.  Where 
the  splinter  is  actually  imbedded  in  the  eye,  lay  the  patient  on 
his  back  on  a  table;  turn  the  eyelids  back,  and  fix  them  by 
means  of  a  ring,  and  then  you  will  find  yourself  free  to 
operate  without  danger  of  interference  from  the  patient's 
winking.  A  suitable  ring  may  be  found  in  most  bunches  of 
keys,  or  any  mechanic  can  make  one  in  two  minutes  out  of  a 
piece  of  stiff  iron  wire.  Iron  splinters  always  huve  ragged 
edges,  and  can  be  caught  on  the  tine,  sharp  edge  of  a  knife 
and  lifted  out.  But  although  we  recommend  the  use  of  a 
sharp  knife,  it  must  be  remembered  that  no  cutting  of  the 
eyeball  is  to  be  permitted  in  any  case,  except  by  an  ex- 
perienced occulist. 

Where  the  person  who  is  operating  is  at  all  nervous  or 
timid,  it  will  not  do  to  use  a  knife.  In  this  case,  take  some 
soft,  white  silk  waste  and  wind  it  round  a  splinter  of  wood 
so  as  to  completely  cover  the  end  and  form  a  little  brush  of 
looped  threads.  Tie  it  fast.  When  such  a  brush  is  swept 
over  that  part  of  the  eyeball  where  the  off'ending  subskance 
is  imbedded,  the  latter  will  soon  be  entangled  in  the  thrc'uls 
and  may  be  easily  drawn  out. 

In  all  such  cases  a  good  magnifier  will  be  found  of  great 
assistance.  The  best  form  is  perhajis  a  good  watchmaker's 
glass. 

When  corrosive  chemicals,  such  as  oil  of  vitriol,  nitric  acid, 
3orrosive  salts,  etc.,  find  their  way  into  the  eye,  the  best 
application  is  abundance  of  pure  cold  water.  The  eye  should 
be  held  open  and  weU  washed  out.     When  any  irritating  sub- 


46  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

stance  gets  into  the  eye,  the  lid  is  apt  to  close  spasmodically, 
and  if  allowed  to  remain  so,  no  water  can  get  in. 

In  the  case  of  lime,  however,  the  action  of  water  would 
only  increase  the  difficulty.  A  little  vinegar  and  water  forma 
the  best  wash  for  lime,  potash,  soda,  or  ammonia. 

Fires. 

Most  of  the  fires  that  occur  might  be  avoided  by  proper 
care,  and  the  following  hints,  if  carefully  observed,  will  aid 
materially  in  avoiding  such  accidents: 

1.  Never  leave  matches  where  they  can  be  reached  by 
children,  and  if  one  should  fall  on  the  floor,  be  careful  and 
search  for  it  until  you  find  it.  A  match,  when  trodden  on, 
readUy  ignites,  and  if  unobserved  may  cause  a  serious  fire,  or 
what  is  more  likely,  set  a  lady's  di'ess  in  flames.  Eats  and 
mice  have  a  gi-eat  fondness  for  matches,  and  often  carry  them 
ofl'  to  their  holes,  where,  by  nibbling,  they  set  them  on  fire. 
Always  keep  matches  in  tin  boxes,  and  never  in  paper  pack- 
ages. 

2.  Children  should  be  strictly  prevented  from  jDlaying  with 
fire,  and  severely  punished  if  caught  so  offending.  It  is  far 
better  that  they  should  undergo  the  inconvenience  of  a  little 
wholesome  chastisement  than  either  set  the  house  on  fire, 
disfigure  themselves  for  life,  or  be  burnt  to  death,  from  the 
want  of  being  severely  punished  for  disobedience. 

3.  Never  leave  a  lamp  or  candle  burning  at  your  bedside 
on  a  table  when  you  go  to  bed,  and  avoid  reading  in  bed; 
this  is  a  most  fruitful  cause  of  loss  of  life  and  property. 

4.  If  a  piece  of  paper  is  used  to  light  a  lamp,  see  that  it  is 
projierly  extinguished  before  lea\'ing  it,  as  it  will  sometimes 
burst  out  on  fire  after  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  completely 
extinguished. 

5.  If  there  be  an  escape  of  gas,  so  that  the  smell  of  it  is 
very  apjaarent,  open  the  door  and  windows  immediately  to 
allow  its  escape,  and  facilitate  the  entrance  of  fresh  air;  and 
above  all  things  avoid  coming  any  way  near  with  a  light  of 
any  description.  As  soon  as  you  can,  shut  ofi"  the  gas  at  the 
meter. 

6.  Be  careful  about  stove-pipes  passing  through  lath  par- 
titions ;  about  kindling  wood  left  in  the  oven  over  night  to 
dry,  and  about  the  ash-box.  Never  keep  ashes  in  a  wooden 
vessel  under  any  circumstances  whatever,  and  never  go  to 


THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION.  47 

bed  at  night  without  seeing  that  every  possible  cause  for  an 
accidental  fire  has  been  removed.  Allow  no  linen  or  cotton 
clothes  to  hang  near  a  stove  over  night  for  the  pur^Dose  of 
drying  them. 

7.  There  never  yet  was  a  fire  which  a  single  pail  of  water, 
if  applied  in  time,  would  not  have  quenched,  therefore  never 
go  to  bed  without  having  a  few  i^ails  of  water  at  hand,  and  a 
dipper  with  which  to  throw  it  on  the  fire.  Water  can  never 
be  so  well  applied  if  thrown  from  the  pail  itself.  Spontaneous 
combustion  is  no  imaginary  danger,  therefore  never  leave 
heaps  of  oiled  rags  and  similar  rubbish  lying  around. 

As  most  of  us  are  liable  to  be  caught  in  a  burning  build- 
ing, it  would  be  well  for  us  to  impress  the  following  hints 
ujion  the  mind,  as  they  may  stand  us  in  good  stead  if  a  fire 
Bhould  occiar: 

1.  Every  householder  should  make  each  person  in  his 
house  acquainted  with  the  best  means  of  escajie,  whether  the 
fli'e  breaks  out  at  the  top  or  at  the  bottom.  In  securing  the 
street  door  and  lower  windows  for  the  night,  avoid  compli- 
cated fastenings  or  impediments  to  an  immediate  outlet  in 
case  of  lire. 

2.  Inmates,  at  the  first  alarm,  should  endeavor  to  reflect 
what  means  of  escape  there  are  in  the  house;  if  in  bed  at  the 
time,  wrap  themselves  in  a  blanket  or  bedside  carpet;  open 
neither  windows  nor  doors  more  than  necessary;  shut  every 
door  after  them.     This  is  most  important  to  obsei*ve. 

3.  In  the  midst  of  smoke  it  is  comi)aratively  clear  toward 
the  ground,  consequently  progress  through  the  smoke  can 
be  made  on  the  hands  and  knees.  A  silk  handkerchief, 
worsted  stockings,  or  other  flannel  substance  wetted  and 
drawn  over  the  face,  permits  free  breathing,  and  excludes,  to 
a  gi'eat  extent,  the  smoke  from  the  lungs.  A  wet  sponge  is 
alike  efficacious. 

4.  In  the  event  of  being  unable  to  escape,  either  hj  the 
streot  door  or  roof,  the  jjersons  in  danger  should  immediately 
make  their  way  to  a  front  room  window,  taking  care  to  close 
the  door  after  them,  and  those  who  have  charge  of  the  house- 
hold should  ascertain  that  every  individual  is  there  assembled. 

5.  Persons  thus  circumstanced  shoiild  never  precipitate 
themselves  from  the  windows  while  there  remains  the  least 
isrobability  of  assistance;  and  even  in  the  last  extremity  a 
plain  rope  is  invaluable,  or  recourse  may  be  had  to  joining 


48  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

sheets  or  blankets  together,  fastening  one  end  round  the  bod- 

f)ost  or  other  furniture.  This  will  enable  one  person  to 
ower  all  the  others  separately,  and  the  last  may  let  himself 
down  with  comparatively  little  risk.  Select  a  window  over 
the  doorway  rather  than  over  the  area. 

Clothes  on  Fire. — So  many  accidents  are  daily  occurring 
from  broken  kerosene  lamps,  and  clothes  taking  fire  from 
gas  lights  and  open  flre^ijlaces,  that  it  is  very  important  to 
know  what  to  do  under  such  circumstances.  Three  persons 
out  of  four  would  rush  right  up  to  the  burning  individual, 
and  begin  to  paw  with  their  hands  without  any  aim.  It  is 
useless  to  tell  the  victim  to  do  this  or  that,  or  call  for  water. 
In  fact  it  is  generally  best  not  to  say  a  word,  but  seize  a 
blanket  from  a  bed,  or  Qj  cloak,  or  any  woolen  fabric — if  none 
is  at  hand,  take  any  heavy  material — hold  the  corners  as  far 
apart  as  you  can,  stretch  them  higher  than  your  head,  and 
running  boldly  to  the  person,  make  a  motion  of  clasping  in 
the  arms,  just  about  the  shoulders.  This  instantly  smothers 
the  fire  and  saves  the  face.  The  next  instant  throw  the  un- 
fortunate jserson  on  the  floor.  This  is  an  additional  safety 
to  the  face  and  breath,  and  any  remnant  of  flame  can  be  put 
out  more  leisurely.  When  the  person  whose  clothes  take  fire 
is  alone,  the  danger  is  not  unfrequently  increased  by  the 
suflerer  running  about  in  a  state  of  alarm ;  whereas  it  would 
be  better  for  him  to  roll  on  the  floor  until  the  fire  is  extin- 
guished, or  better  still,  to  cover  himself  with  a  loose  carjDet, 
rug,  or  blanket,  to  exclude  the  air,  till  a  sufficient  supply  of 
water  is  obtained  to  throw  over  him.  In  either  case,  after  the 
fire  has  been  i)ut  out,  the  individual  should  be  jjlaced  on  a 
bed,  and  the  clothes  removed  piecemeal  by  cutting  them  off; 
much  caution  is  required  in  taking  away  the  body  linen 
without  tearing  ofi'  the  skin,  and  where  the  linen  sticks,  so 
much  only  should  be  cut  off  as  can  be  detached  readily. 

Fire  Proof  Dresses. — Some  years  ago  Queen  Victoria  ap- 
pointed a  commission  to  investigate  this  subject.  It  was 
found  that  there  were  but  four  salts  which  were  applicable 
to  light  fabrics :  1,  Phosphate  of  ammonia;  2,  a  mixtuie  of 
phosphate  of  ammonia  and  chloride  of  ammonia;  3,  suljjhate 
of  ammonia;  4,  tuugstate  of  soda.  Of  these,  the  best  was 
tungstate  of  soda,  a  salt  which  is  not  by  any  means  expensive. 
Sulphate  of  ammonia  is  objectionable,  from  the  fact  that  it 
acts  on  the  irons  and  moulds  the  fabric.     The  tungstate  of 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  49 

soda  is  neither  injurious  to  the  texture  or  color,  or  in  any 
degree  difficult  of  application  in  the  washing  process.  The 
iron  passes  over  the  material  quite  as  smoothly  as  if  no  solu- 
tion had  been  employed.  The  solution  increases  the  stifiness 
of  the  fabric,  and  its  protecting  jsower  against  fire  is  perfect. 
This  salt  offers  only  one  difficulty,  viz:  the  formation  of  a 
bitungstate,  of  little  solubility,  which  crystallizes  from  the 
solution;  but  it  was  found  that  a  very  small  percentage  of 
phosphate  of  soda  rendered  the  tungstate  quite  stable.  The 
best  method  of  applying  these  salts  is  to  take  one  ounce  of 
tungstate  of  soda  and  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  phosphate  of 
soda,  and  dissolve  them  in  a  quart  of  water.  The  goods  are 
moistened  with  this  solution  before  being  starched,  and  they 
may  be  afterwards  ironed  and  finished  without  the  least 
difficulty. 

Articles  prepared  in  this  way  are  perfectly  uninflammable. 
They  may  be  charred  by  exj)osure  to  fire,  but  they  do  not 
bum  readily  unless  there  is  some  extraneous  source  of  heat, 
and  they  can  not  be  made  to  burst  into  flame.  By  the  aid  of 
this  discovery,  a  lady  dressed  in  the  lightest  muslin  might 
walk  over  a  row  of  footlights,  and  the  only  result  would  be 
that  the  lower  part  of  her  dress  would  be  injured.  Unless 
her  person  actually  came  in  contact  with  the  gas  flames,  she 
herself  would  suffer  no  injury.  In  country  places,  where 
tiangstate  of  soda  cannot  be  j^rocured,  a  mixture  of  three 
parts  borax,  and  two  and  a  half  parts  sulphate  of  magnesia, 
in  twenty  jsarts  of  water,  may  be  used  with  good  effect. 

F!y-Papers. 

Sticky  or  adhesive  fly-papers  are  to  be  discouraged,  as 
it  is  a  cruelty  to  subject  even  flies  to  the  long  struggles  and 
slow  death  caused  by  it.  Such  papers,  however,  are  occa- 
sionally sold,  and  are  prepared  by  coating  paper  with  fac- 
titious bird-lime.  Or  the  bird-lime  is  smeared  upon  wooden 
sticks  standing  in  a  base,  for  instance,  a  flower-pot,  when 
they  will  adhere  to  it.  A  better  plan  is  to  mix  some  poison 
with  the  adhesive  mass,  but  care  should  be  taken  lest  chil- 
dren get  at  it.  Cooley  gives  the  following  formula:  Treacle, 
honey,  or  moist  sugar  mixed  with  about  l-12th  of  their 
weight  of  orjDiment  (yellow  tersulphide  of  arsenic) .  Kedwood's 
formula  is:  Small  quassia  chips,  i  oz. ;  water,  1  pint;  boil  10 
minutes,  strain,  and  add  4  oz.  of  treacle.  Flies  will  drink 
this  with  avidity,  and  are  soon  destroyed  bj  it. 


50  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

Freezing  Mixtures. 

The  temperatures  here  given  are  Fahrenheit.  When  ice  or 
snow  are  not  to  be  had  and  it  is  desired  to  cool  any  solid, 
liquid  or  gas,  a  good  freezing  mixture  is  the  simplest  method 
of  accomplishing  the  object.  The  following  mixtures  are  the 
most  convenient  and  efficient: 

1.  Nitrate  of  ammonia,  carbonate  of  soda  and  water,  equal 
parts  by  weight.     The  thermometer  sinks  57°. 

2.  Phosphate  of  soda,  9  parts ;  nitrate  of  ammonia,  6  parts ; 
diluted  nitric  acid,  (acid  1  part,  water  2  parts,)  4  parts. 
Reduces  the  temperature  71°  or  from  50°  to  —  21°. 

3.  Sal  ammoniac,  5  parts;  nitrate  of  potash,  5  parts;  sul- 
phate of  soda,  8  parts;  water,  16  parts.  Reduces  the  tem- 
perature 46°  or  from  70°  to  24°.  This  is  one  of  the  cheapest, 
most  readily  procured,  and  most  convenient  of  mixtures. 

Freezing  mixtures  are  often  used  when  it  is  required  to 
produce  a  greater  degree  of  cold  than  can  be  obtained  by 
the  mere  apijlication  of  ice.  When  ice  is  at  hand,  as  it  gen- 
erally is  in  this  country,  the  following  should  be  used: 

1.  Finely  pounded  ice,  2  parts;  salt,  1  part.  This  mixture 
reduces  the  temperature  to  5°. 

2.  Finely  pounded  ice,  2  parts;  crystallized  chloride  of 
calcium,  3  parts.    Reduces  the  temperature  from  32°  to  —  40°. 

3.  Finely  pounded  ice,  7  parts;  diluted  nitric  acid,  4  jjarts. 
Reduces  the  temperature  from  32°  to  —  30°. 

In  every  ease  the  materials  should  be  kept  as  cool  as  pos- 
sible. Thus  the  ice  should  be  pounded  in  a  cooled  mortar 
with  a  cooled  pestle,  and  the  mixture  should  be  made  in  ves- 
sels previously  cooled.  By  attention  to  these  particulars  it 
is  easy  to  freeze  mercury  at  any  time  by  means  of  these 
simple  and  easily  practiced  methods,  though,  of  course,  the 
modern  laboratory  is  provided  with  agencies  of  far  greater 
cooling  power. 

Fumigating  Pastils. 

For  the  purpose  of  deodorizing  a  room  in  which  there  is 
an  ofiensive  smell,  common  coffee  berries,  and  even  rags  or 
brown  paper,  if  properly  burned,  will  serve  admirably.  The 
smoke  from  these  substances  not  only  neutralizes  the  odors, 
but  really  acts  as  a  disinfectant  to  a  slight  extent.  In  burn- 
ing coffee,  paper  or  rags  for  this  jjurpose,  care  must  be  taken 
to  prevent  them  fi'om  burning  too  freely.     If  they  burn  with 


THE  WOEKSHOP  COMPANION.  51 

a  free,  bright  flame,  the  in-oper  effect  will  uot  be  produced. 
They  should  l)e  alloAved  to  smoulder  quietly,  and  they  do 
this  best  when  they  are  thrown  on  hot  coals,  or  a  hot  shovel 
and  set  on  fire. 

An  excellent  substitute  for  jiastils  is  heavy  brown  paper, 
which  has  been  dipped  in  a  solution  of  nitre  and  then  dried. 
This  burns  freely  without  flame,  and  if  it  be  dipjied  in  a 
solution  of  benzoin,  the  odor  is  very  pleasant.  The  best 
thing,  however,  is  pastils.     They  are  easily  made  as  follows : 

1.  Paris  Formula. — Benzoin,  2  oz. ;  balsam  of  tolu  and 
yellow  sandal  wood,  of  each  4  drachms;  nitre,  2  drachms; 
labdauum,  1  drachm;  charcoal,  G  oz.  Reduce  to  powder,  mix 
thoroughly  and  make  into  a  stift'  paste  with  gum  tragacanth. 
Form  into  small  cones  and  dry  them  in  the  air. 

2.  Formula  of  Henry  and  Guiboitrt. — Powdered  benzoin,  16 
parts;  balsam  of  tolu  and  powdered  sandal  wood,  each  4 
parts;  charcoal  powder,  48  parts;  powdered  tragacanth  and 
labdauum,  each  1  pai-t;  powdered  nitre  and  gum  arable,  each 
2  parts;  make  into  a  paste  with  12  parts  cinnamon  water,  form 
into  cones  and  dry. 

3.  The  following  formula  is  somewhat  complex,  but  gives 
very  fine  results:  Take  the  charcoal  of  any  light  wood,  200 
parts;  gum  benzoin,  100  parts;  powdered  sandal  wood,  50 
parts;  balsam  of  tolu,  50  parts;  Storax  (Styrax  calamita),  50 
parts;  gum  olibanum,  50  parts;  cascarilla  bark,  100  parts; 
cloves,  40  parts;  cinnamon  (Ceylon),  40  parts;  potassium 
nitrate,  75  parts.  Reduce  the  ingi-edients  to  powder,  and 
mix  them  with  oil  of  Ceylon  cinnamon,  5  parts;  oil  of  cloves, 
5  parts;  oil  of  lavender,  5  i^arts;  balsam  of  Peru,  10  parts; 
camphor,  powdered,  1  part.  Then  add  mucilage  of  traga- 
canth sufiicient  to  make  a  mass  Avhich  is  to  be  formed  into 
conical  cylinders  about  |  to  1  inch  high,  and  ending  at  the 
bottom  in  three  projections.     Dry  them  in  a  warm  place. 

Gilding. 

A  covering  of  gold,  when  judiciously  applied  to  the  proper 
parts  of  any  object  adds  greatly  to  its  Ijeauty,  and  in  the  case 
of  metals,  such  as  steel,  copper,  silver,  etc.,  the  gold,  being 
capable  of  resisting  the  action  of  most  chemical  agents,  proves 
a  very  perfect  protector  against  corrosion.  Metals  are  now 
generally  gilt  by  means  of  the  electrotype  process,  though 
the  old  method  by  means  of  an  amalgam,  is  still  used  in  some 


53  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

cases.  Stamped  goods,  such  as  cheap  jewelry,  are  also 
made  out  of  sheets  of  metal  -wliich,  after  being  heavily  gilt,  are 
rolled  out  thin,  the  gold  being  thus  spread  over  an  astonish- 
ing extent  of  surface.  For  gilding  leather,  wood,  etc. ,  gold 
in  the  form  of  leaf  or  powder  is  generally  used. 

Gilding  wiiJi  Gold-Leaf. — There  are  various  methods  api^li- 
cable,  according  to  the  different  circumstances  and  the 
character  of  the  objects  to  be  gilded.  Book -binders  use  gold- 
leaf  in  two  ways — to  gild  on  the  edge,  and  to  place  gold  let- 
ters on  the  binding.  To  gild  on  the  edge,  the  edge  is  smoothly 
cut,  put  in  a  strong  press,  scraped  so  as  to  make  it  solid,  and 
the  well-beaten  white  of  an  egg  or  albumen  put  on  thinly; 
the  gold-leaf  is  then  put  on  before  the  albumen  is  dry ;  it  is 
pressed  down  with  cotton,  and  when  dry  polished  with  au 
agate  polisher.  To  put  on  the  lettering,  the  place  where  the 
letters  are  to  appear  is  coated  with  albumen,  and  after  it  is 
dry,  the  type  to  be  used  is  heated  to  about  the  boiling  point 
of  water,  the  gold-leaf  put  on,  either  on  the  book  or  on  the 
type,  and  then  placed  on  the  spot  where  the  lettering  is 
desired,  when  the  gold-leaf  will  adhere  by  the  heat  of  the 
type,  while  the  excess  of  gold-leaf  loosely  around  is  rubbed 
off  with  a  tuft  of  cotton. 

To  do  printing  with  gold-leaf,  the  sheet  to  be  printed  on  is 
pinned  to  the  tympan  of  a  hand-press,  and  it  is  first  printed 
with  ink  of  any  color,  or  with  varnish,  and  then  the  tyj^e  is 
covered  with  a  large  sheet  of  paper,  the  gold-leaf  laid  on, 
and  the  tympan  laid  down  again,  slowly  and  carefully,  so  as 
not  to  disturb  the  gold-leaf  by  motions  of  the  air;  then  the 
pressure  is  again  applied,  when  the  gold-leaf  will  stick  to 
the  printed  sheet,  and  the  surplus  can  be  rubbed  off  with  a 
tuft  of  cotton.  Ordinary  printing  in  gold,  silver  and  bronze, 
however,  is  done  with  powdered  metal  and  not  with  leaf. 
The  printing  is  first  done  with  a  vamish  specially  made  for 
the  purpose;  after  the  imjiressiou  has  been  taken,  the  sheets 
are  allowed  to  lie  a  short  time  so  as  to  dry  a  little,  but  not 
completely,  and  while  still  tacky  the  gold,  silver  or  bronze 
powder  is  sprinkled  over  the  letters.  The  powder  adheres 
to  the  vamish,  and  the  surplus  is  easily  removed  by  meaus 
of  a  tuft  of  cotton. 

In  gilding  picture-frames  with  gold-leaf  there  are  two 
methods;  one  with  the  ordinary  gold  size,  the  other  with 
vamish.     The  latter  method  does  not  allow  polishing,  but  is 


THE  WOEFSHOP  COMPANION.  53 

water-proof;  the  former  is  not.  The  main  point  is  to  have  a 
well  prepared  ground-work  of  say  white  lead  and  drying  oil, 
smoothed  down  i^roiDerly;  then  follow  several  coats  of  cal- 
cined white  lead  in  linseed  oil  anJ  turjientine,  with  intervals 
of  at  least  twenty-four  hours  between  each  coat,  which  must 
be  carefully  smoothed  off  with  pumice-stone  and  fine  emery- 
paper.  Then  the  gold  size  is  ai3plied,  which  may  be  made  from 
the  sediment  that  collects  at  the  bottom  of  the  pot  in  which 
painters  wash  their  brushes;  this  is  thoroughly  ground  and 
strained.  Wlien  the  gold  size  coat  is  sufficiently  dry  so  as  to  be 
a  little  sticky,  apply  the  gold-leaf  and  press  it  on  with  cotton 
or  a  soft  brush;  after  a  few  days'  hardening  it  is  varnished 
with  spirits  or  oil  varnish.  This  gives  a  water-proof  gild- 
ing, bitt  ordinarily  picture-frames  are  gilded  with  a  gold  size 
containing  no  oil.  It  is  made  of  finely  ground  sal  ammoniac, 
to  which  is  added  a  very  little  beef  suet;  this  is  mixed  with 
a  pallet-knife,  with  parchment  size  dissolved  in  water,  so  as 
to  flow  from  the  knife  v/heu  hot.  The  fi'cime  may  be  pre- 
pared first  with  a  few  coats  of  Paris  white  and  glue-water, 
rubbed  down  smoothly,  and  finally  apply  the  size,  wliich 
must  not  be  too  thick,  as  then  it  will  chip  off,  and  if  too  thin 
it  will  not  have  sufficient  body.  The  most  difficult  j^art  in 
all  these  oijerations  of  gold-leaf  gilding,  is  the  application  of 
the  gold-leaf,  which  requires  much  practice,  judgment,  and 
great  care,  but  with  some  attention  to  little  details  it  can  be 
easily  learned.  There  ought  to  be  no  draught  at  the  place 
of  operation  and  the  operator  ought  to  avoid  allowing  his 
breath  to  blow  upc  the  gold  leaves,  as  they  are  so  thin  and 
light  that  the  least  breath  of  air  causes  them  to  fly  about — 
worse  than  feathers.  Turn  the  gold  leaves — one  at  a  time — 
out  of  the  book  upon  the  leather  cushion;  with  the  gilding- 
knife  you  may  lift  any  leaf  and  carry  it  to  a  convenient  i^lace 
to  cut  it  into  the  sizes  required.  Blow  gently  on  the  center 
of  the  leaf,  and  it  wiU  at  once  spread  out  and  lie  flat  without 
any  wrinkles,  then  cut  it  by  passing  the  edge  of  the  knife 
over  it  until  divided.  Place  the  work  to  be  gilded  as  near  as 
practicable  in  a  horizontal  position,  and  with  a  long  camels'- 
liair  pencil,  dipped  in  a  mixture  of  water  with  a  little  brandy, 
go  over  as  much  surface  as  the  piece  of  gold  is  to  cover;  then 
take  up  the  gold  from  the  cushion  with  a  tip.  Drawing  it 
over  the  forehead  and  cheek  will  dampen  it  sufficiently  to 
make  the  gold  adhere.     This  must  then  be  carefully  trans- 


54  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

ferred  to  its  place  on  the  work,  and  by  gently  breathing  on 
it,  it  will  adhere.  Take  care  that  the  part  to  which  it  is 
applied  be  suflSciently  wet,  so  that  the  gold-leaf  will  not 
crack.  Proceed  in  this  way,  a  little  at  a  time,  not  attempt- 
ing to  cover  too  much  at  once.  If  any  cracks  or  flaws 
appear,  immediately  ajjply  another  piece  of  gold-leaf  over 
it — large  enough  to  cover  the  crack.  If  occasionally  the  gold 
does  not  appear  to  adhere,  on  account  of  the  ground  having 
become  too  dry,  run  a  wet  pencil  close  to  the  edge  of  the 
gold,  so  as  to  allow  water  to  penetrate  under  the  gold-leaf. 
When  the  work  is  dry  (say  in  ten  or  twelve  hours) ,  it  may  be 
burnished  Avith  an  agate  tool,  taking  care  to  first  remove  all 
the  dust  from  the  tool  as  well  as  from  the  gilded  surface. 

Ornamental  lines  of  gilding  may  be  painted  on  wood  and 
other  articles  by  means  of  a  fine  camel-hair  brush,  using 
shell  gold,  Avhich  may  be  had  at  the  artists'  supjily  stores. 
This  forms  a  very  good  method  of  ornamenting  work  done 
by  the  scroll  saAV,  or  cai'ved  work,  such  as  frames,  etc. 

Gilding  Steel. — Polished  steel  may  be  beautifully  gilded  by 
means  of  the  ethereal  solution  of  gold.  Dissolve  pure  gold 
in  aqua  regia,  evaporate  gently  to  dryness,  so  as  to  drive  ofl 
the  superfluous  acid,  re-dissolve  in  water  and  add  three  times 
its  bulk  of  siilphuric  ether.  Allow  to  stand  for  twenty-four 
hours  in  a  stopjjered  bottle  and  the  ethereal  solution  of 
gold  will  float  at  top.  Polished  steel  dipped  in  this  is  at 
once  beautifully  gilded,  and  by  tracing  jDatterns  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  metal  with  any  kind  of  varnish,  beautiful  devices 
in  plain  metal  and  gilt  will  be  produced.  For  other  metals 
the  electro  jn-ocess  is  the  best. 

Glass  Working. 

Glass  is  usually  brought  into  shape  by  being  moulded  or 
blown.  Simj^le  and  complete  dii'ections  for  blowing  small 
articles  may  be  found  in  the  Young  Scientist,  vol.  I,  p.  37. 

There  are  a  few  other  operations,  however,  which  are  con 
stantly  needed  by  the  amateur  and  which  we  will  describe. 

Cutting  Glass. — For  ciitting  flat  glass,  such  as  window- 
panes,  and  for  cutting  rounds  or  ovals  out  of  flat  glass,  the 
diamond  is  the  best  tool;  and,  if  the  oj^erator  has  no  diamond 
it  will  always  pay  to  carry  the  job  to  a  glazier  rather  than 
waste  time  and  make  a  poor  job  by  other  and  inferior  means. 
When,  however,  it  is  required  to  cut  off  a  very  little  from  a 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  55 

circle  or  oval,  the  diamond  is  not  available,  except  in  ver^ 
skilful  hands.  In  this  case  a  pair  of  pliers  softened  by  heat- 
ing, or  very  dnll  scissors  is  the  best  tool,  and  the  cutting  i? 
best  performed  under  water.  A  little  practice  will  enable 
the  operator  to  shape  a  small  round  or  oval  with  great 
rapidity,  ease  and  precision.  When  bottles  or  flasks  are  to 
be  cut,  the  diamond  is  still  the  best  tool  in  skilful  hands; 
but  ordinary  operators  will  succeed  best  with  j^astils,  or  a 
red  hot  poker  with  a  pointed  end.  We  prefer  the  latter,  as 
being  the  most  easily  obtained  and  the  most  efficient;  and  we 
have  never  found  any  difficulty  in  cutting  off  broken  flasks 
so  as  to  make  dishes,  or  to  carry  a  cut  spii'ally  round  a  long 
bottle  so  as  to  cut  it  into  the  form  of  a  corkscrew.  And,  by 
the  way,  when  so  cut,  glass  exhibits  considerable  elasticity, 
and  the  spiral  may  be  elongated  like  a  ringlet.  The  process 
is  very  simple.  The  line  of  the  ciit  should  be  marked  by 
chalk  or  by  pasting  a  thin  strij?  of  paper  alongside  of  it; 
then  make  a  flle  mark  to  commence  the  cut;  apply  the  hot 
iron  and  a  crack  will  start;  and  this  crack  will  follow  the 
iron  wherever  we  choose  to  lead  it.  In  this  way  jars  are 
easily  made  out  of  old  bottles,  and  broken  vessels  of  difierent 
kinds  may  be  cut  up  into  new  forms.  Flat  glass  may  also 
be  cut  into  the  most  intricate  and  elegant  forms.  The  red 
hot  iron  is  far  superior  to  strings  wet  with  tui-pentine,  fric- 
tion, etc. 

Drilling  Glass.  -For  drilling  holes  in  glass,  a  common  stc^l 
drill,  well  made  and  well  tempered,  is  the  best  tool.  The 
steel  should  be  forged  at  a  low  temperature,  so  as  to  be  sure 
not  to  burn  it,  and  then  tempered  as  hard  as  possible  in  a 
bath  of  salt  water  that  has  been  well  boiled.  Such  a  drill 
will  go  through  glass  very  rapidly  if  kejit  well  moistened 
with  turpentine  in  which  some  camphor  has  been  dissolved. 
Dilute  sulphuric  acid  is  equally  good,  if  not  better.  It  is 
stated,  that  at  Berlin,  glass  castings  for  pump-bai-rels,  etc. , 
are  drilled,  planed  and  bored,  like  iron  ones,  and  in  the  same 
lathes  and  machines,  by  the  aid  of  sulphuric  acid.  A  little 
practice  with  these  difierent  plans  will  enable  the  operator  to 
cut  and  work  glass  as  easily  as  brass  or  iron. 

Turning  Glass  in  the  Lathe. — Black  diamonds  are  now  so 
easily  procured  that  they  are  the  best  tools  for  turning, 
planing  or  boring  glass  where  much  work  is  to  be  done. 
With  a  good  diamond  a  skilful  worker  can  turn  a  lens  roughly 


56  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

out  of  a  piece  of  flat  glass  in  a  few  seconds,  so  that  it  will  be 
very  near  the  right  shajie. 

A  splinter  of  diamond  may  be  very  readily  fastened  in  the 
end  of  a  piece  of  stout  brass  wire  so  that  it  may  be  used  for 
drilling  or  turning  glass.  Bore  a  hole  the  size  of  the  splinter 
and  so  deep  that  the  diamond  may  be  inserted  beyond  its 
largest  part,  but  leaving  the  i^oint  projecting.  Then,  by 
means  of  a  pair  of  stout  i^liers,  it  is  easy  to  press  the  end  of 
the  brass  so  that  it  will  fill  in  around  the  diamond  and  hold 
it  tight.  Diamonds  are  sometimes  cemented  in  such  holes 
by  means  of  shellac,  or  even  solder  run  around  them.  This 
answers  for  some  purposes,  but  not  for  drilling  or  turning. 

Fitting  Glass  Stoppers. — Very  few  stoppers  fit  properly  the 
bottles  for  which  they  are  intended.  Tho  stojDi^Pi'S  and  bot- 
tles are  ground  with  copper  cones,  fed  with  sand  and  made 
to  revolve  rapidly  in  a  lathe,  and  the  common  stock  are  not 
specially  fitted.  To  fit  a  stopper  to  a  bottle  that  has  not  been 
ground,  use  emery  or  coarse  sand  kept  constantly  wet  with 
water,  and  rejslaced  with  fresh  as  fast  as  it  is  rediTced  to 
powder.  When  all  the  surface  has  become  equally  rough,  it 
is  considered  a  sign  that  the  glass  has  been  ground  to  the 
proj^er  shaj^e,  as  until  that  time  the  projecting  parts  only 
show  traces  of  erosion.  This  is  the  longest  and  hardest  part 
of  the  work,  aa  after  that  the  glass  simply  needs  finishing 
and  polishing.  For  that  ijurpose  emery  only  can  be  used, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  material  can  be  obtained  of  any  de- 
gi-ee  of  fineness,  in  this  respect  differing  from  sand.  Other- 
Avise  the  operation  is  the  same  as  before,  the  emery  being 
always  kept  moistened,  and  re])laced  when  worn  out.  The 
grinding  is  continued  until  both  the  neck  of  the  bottle  and 
the  stojDper  acquire  a  uniform  finish,  of  a  moderate  degree  of 
smoothness,  and  until  the  stojjper  fits  so  accurately  that  no 
shake  can  be  felt  in  it,  even  though  it  be  not  twisted  in 
tightly. 

Glass  Stoppers. — To  remove  glass  stojjpers  when  tightly 
fixed,  it  has  been  recommended  to  apply  a  cloth  wet  in  hot 
water.  This  is  an  inconvenient  and  frequently  unsviccessful 
method.  The  great  object  is  to  exjiand  the  neck  of  the 
bottle  so  as  to  loosen  it  on  the  stoj^ijer.  If,  however,  the 
latter  be  heated  and  exjDanded  equally  with  the  former,  the 
desired  effect  is  not  produced;  and  this  is  often  the  case  in 
applying  hot  water.     By  holding  the  neck  of  the  bottle  about 


THE  WOKK>-dOP  COMPANION.  «7 

half  an  inch  above  the  flame  of  a  lamp  or  candle,  for  a  few 
seconds,  we  have  never  failed  in  the  most  obstinate  cases. 
The  hands  should  be  wrapped  in  a  towel,  and  great  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  let  the  flame  touch  the  glass,  as  this 
might  cause  it  to  crack.  The  bottle  should  be  kept  rapidly 
turning,  during  the  operation,  so  as  to  bring  all  iiarts  of  the 
ueck  equally  under  the  influence  of  the  heat,  when  it  will  be 
rapidly  expanded  and  the  stopper  may  be  withdrawn  by  a 
steadi/ pull  and  twist.  Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  tap  the 
stopper  lightly  with  a  piece  of  wood;  the  jar  is  very  apt  to 
loosen  the  stopper.  To  twist  the  stopper,  make,  in  a  piece 
of  wood,  an  oblong  hole  into  which  the  stopper  will  just  flt. 

Glass,  To  Foicde)'. — Powdered  glass  is  frequently  used  in- 
stead of  paper,  cloth,  cotton  or  sand  for  Altering  varnishes, 
acids,  etc.  It  is  not  soluble  or  corrodible.  Band,  if  purely 
silicious,  would  be  better,  but  such  sand  is  difiicult  to  get; 
it  too  often  contains  matters  which  are  easily  corroded  or 
dissolved.  Powdered  glass  when  glued  to  paper  is  also  used 
for  polishing  wood  and  other  materials.  It  cuts  rapidly  and 
cleanly,  and  is  better  than  sand  for  most  purposes.  Glass  is 
easily  pulverized  after  being  heated  red  hot  and  plunged  into 
cold  water.  It  cracks  in  every  direction,  becomes  hard  and 
brittle,  and  breaks  with  keenly  cutting  edges.  After  being 
pounded  in  a  mortar  it  may  be  divided  into  powders  of  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  fineness  by  being  sifted  through  lawn  sieves. 

Okiss,  ImitaUon  Gh-oimd—'Put  a  piece  of  putty  in  muslin, 
tvv'igt  the  fabric  tight,  and  tie  it  into  the  shape  of  a  pad;  well 
clean  the  glass  first,  and  then  putty  it  all  over.  The  putty 
will  exude  siifficiently  through  the  muslin  to  render  the  stain 
opaque.  Let  it  dry  hard,  and  then  varnish.  If  a  pattern  is 
required,  cut  it  out  in  paper  as  a  stencil;  place  it  so  as  not 
to  slip,  and  proceed  as  above,  removing  the  stencil  when 
finished.  If  there  should  be  any  objection  to  the  existence 
of  the  clear  spaces,  cover  with  slightly  opaque  varnish.  In 
this  way  very  neat  and  cheap  signs  may  be  painted  on  glass 
doors. 

Glass  Ware,  Packing. — Every  one  has  this  duty  to  perforif 
occasionally,  and  it  is  well  to  know  how  it  should  be  done. 
The  safety  "of  glass  articles  packed  together  in  a  box  does  not 
depend  so  much  upon  the  quantity  of  packing  material  used, 
as  upon  the  fact  that  no  two  pieces  of  glass  come  into  actual 
contact.     In  packing  plates,  a  single  straw  i)laced  between 


U  THE  WORKSHOP  V  OMPANION. 

two  of  them  will  prevent  them  from  breaking  each  other.  In 
packing  bottles  in  a  case,  such  as  the  collecting  case  of  the 
microscoi3ist,  and  the  test  case  of  the  chemist,  rubber  rings 
slipped  over  each,  will  be  found  the  best  and  handiest  pack- 
ing material.  They  have  this  great  advantage  that  they  do 
not  give  rise  to  dust. 

Washing  Glass  Vessels. — In  many  operations  where  glass 
vessels  are  used,  success  will  depend  upon  having  the  glass 
perfectly  clean.  Upon  this  subject  a  corresjaondent  of  the 
Chemical  News  says:  Such  a  subject  may  seem  too  simple,  but 
yet  the  more  I  see  students  at  their  work,  the  more  I  am  im- 
pressed with  the  fact  that  but  few  know  how  to  wash  a  beaker- 
glass  clean.  Some  time  since  I  took  beakers  from  various 
students  in  my  laboratory  (which  they  had  washed  and  put 
away),  and  held  them  under  a  powerful  stream  of  water  untU 
they  were  thoroughly  wet.  On  taking  them  from  under  the 
spout,  in  almost  every  case  the  water  ran  oflf  the  glass  in 
spots,  showing  that  the  glass  was  greasy.  The  best  thing  to 
wash  beakers,  etc.,  with,  according  to  my  experience,  is  sand- 
soap.  Naturally,  the  sand  must  not  be  sharp.  The  soaps 
containing  infusorial  earth  are  most  excellent  for  this  i^ur- 
pose.  Borax  soap  is  also  very  efficacious.  A  piece  of  board 
about  20  cm.  long,  15  cm.  wide,  and  4  cm.  thick,  should  be 
screwed  on  to  the  right  (inside)  of  the  sink.  In  this  block  a 
rectangular  hole,  about  2  cm.  deep  and  1  cm.  smaller  than 
the  section  of  the  soap  when  stood  on  its  long  end,  is  to  be 
cut.  The  bottom  of  the  cake  of  soaj)  is  then  whittled  away 
so  that  it  fits  tightly  in  the  hole.  It  is  now  moistened  and 
pushed  into  the  aperture,  where  it  remains  tightly  fixed.  Bj 
wetting  the  right  hand  thoroughly,  and  rubbing  on  this  soap 
ridge,  a  good  lather  is  made.  With  the  soajjy  hand  the  glass 
is  rubbed  and  washed  until,  on  taking  it  from  under  the 
stream,  no  oily  spots  apjjear,  the  glass  appearing  wet  all  over. 
The  beaker  is  then  dried  with  a  good  towel  ("  glass  towel  "), 
and  finally  polished  with  a  jsiece  of  chamois  or  kid  leather. 
The  final  polish  with  kid  is  necessary,  since  the  best  towel 
leaves  fibres  on  the  glass.  In  cleaning  test  tubes,  it  is  onlv 
necessary  to  rub  the  probang  on  the  soajj. 

For  cleaning  flasks  and  bottles  which  have  been  soiled 
with  varnishes  or  resins,  or  for  cleaning  the  glass  slides  used 
for  microscopic  objects,  proceed  as  follows:  Remove  all  the 
balaam,   resin,  varnish,    etc.,   possible  by  means  of   heat, 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  59 

scraping,  and  a  solution  of  soda  or  potash.  When  the  article 
is  as  clean  as  possible,  place  it  in  strong  sulphuric  acid,  to 
which  must  be  added  as  much  powdered  bichromate  of 
potassa. 

The  chromic  acid  will  quickly  destroy  all  organic  matter, 
and  the  article  when  washed  in  pure  water  will  be  found  per- 
fectly clean. 

Grass. 

Gi-ass,  To  Stam  Dried. — There  are  few  prettier  ornaments, 
and  none  more  economical  and  lasting,  than  bouquets  of 
dried  grasses  mingled  with  the  various  unchangeable  flowers. 
They  have  but  one  fault,  and  that  is  this,  the  want  of  other 
colors  besides  yellow  and  drab  or  broAVTi.  To  vary  their 
shade  artificially,  these  flowers  are  sometimes  dyed  green. 
This,  however,  is  in  bad  taste  and  unnatural.  The  best  effect 
is  produced  by  blending  rose  and  red  tints  together,  and  with 
a  very  little  pale  blue  with  the  grasses  and  flowers  as  they 
dry  naturally.  The  best  means  of  dyeing  dried  leaves,  flow- 
ers and  grasses,  is  to  dip  them  into  the  alcoholic  solution  of 
the  various  compounds  of  aniline.  Some  of  these  have  a 
beautiful  rose  shade;  others  red,  blue,  orange  and  purple. 
The  depth  of  color  can  be  regulated  by  diluting,  if  necessary, 
the  oi*iginal  dyes,  with  alcohol,  down  to  the  shade  desired. 
When  taken  out  of  the  dye,  they  should  be  exposed  to  the 
air  to  dry  oft"  the  alcohol.  They  then  require  arranging  or 
setting  into  form,  as,  when  wet,  the  petals  and  fine  filaments 
have  a  tendency  to  cling  together.  A  pink  saucer,  as  sold 
by  most  druggists,  will  supply  enough  rose  dye  for  two 
ordinary  bouquets.  The  pink  saucer  yields  the  best  rose  dye 
by  washing  it  off"  with  water  and  lemon  juice.  The  aniline 
dyes  yield  the  best  violet,  mauve  and  purple  colors. 

Guns. 

The  excellence  of  a  gun  depends  very  much  upon  the  form 
and  finish  of  the  interior  of  the  barrels,  and  as  the  owner 
may,  if  he  chooses,  work  the  inside  of  his  gun  over  so  as  ic 
improve  it,  we  give  a  few  directions. 

Freeing. — It  has  been  found  that  a  perfect  cylindrical  tune 
is  not  the  best  fonn  for  a  gun  barrel.  Guns  shoot  most 
closely  and  strongly  when  the  bore  is  ?5e?'_y  slightly  enlarged 
towards  the  muzzle.  This  enlargement  is  easily  efffected  by 
means  of  very  fine  emery  paper  wrapped  about  a  round  r**^ 


60  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

and  used  with  a  little  oil.  The  freeing  may  extend  to  about 
one-third  of  the  length  of  the  barrel,  and  the  gun  should  be 
tested  from  time  to  time  during  the  process,  so  as  to  get  the 
very  best  results.  The  testing  is  done  by  firing  a  standard 
charge  of  powder  and  shot  at  a  sheet  of  brown  paper  and 
noting  the  number  of  pellets  that  are  put  into  a  circle  of 
given  size,  and  also  the  force  with  which  they  are  driven  into 
a  board.  For  ordinary  bird  guns,  a  30-incli  circle  at  forty 
yards,  makes  a  good  target. 

To  Keep  Barrels  from  Rusting. — One  of  the  great  diificulties 
which  the  sportsman  has  to  contend  against  is  the  rusting  of 
his  barrels,  even  when  protected  by  the  best  browning.  The 
alkaline  matter  existing  in  snow  and  in  rain,  under  certain 
conditions  of  the  atmosjAere,  works  through  the  best  coat- 
ings, and  reaches  the  iron.  Varnish,  as  ordinarily  laid  on, 
is  objectionable,  as  it  gives  a  gun  a  "Brixmmagem"  look. 
The  best  jjlan  is  the  following:  Heat  the  barrels  to  the  tem- 
perature of  boiling  water  (not  any  hotter,  or  you  may  injure 
them),  and  rub  them  with  the  best  cojial  varnish,  giving  them 
a  plentiful  coating.  Let  them  remain  hot  for  half  an  hour, 
and  then  wipe  them  clean  with  a  soft  rag.  In  this  way  you 
can  get  enough  of  the  vamish  into  the  i^ores  of  the  metal  to 
act  as  a  preservative,  and,  at  the  same  time,  no  one  would 
susjiect  that  the  barrels  had  ever  been  touched  with  vamish. 
We  have  apj)lied  boiled  oil,  beeswax,  paraffin,  and  some 
other  substances,  in  the  same  way,  and  obtained  good  results; 
but  on  the  whole,  we  find  nothing  better  than  good  C02}al 
varnish. 

Browning  Gun  Ban-els. — To  obtain  a  handsomely  browned 
baiTel,  we  must  not  only  use  a  first  rate  recipe,  but  we  must 
apply  a  good  deal  of  skill  and  no  small  amount  of  hard  work. 
When  barrels  are  imperfectly  browned,  the  fault  lies  more 
frequently  in  defective  work  than  in  the  use  of  a  poor  recipe. 

The  following  are  the  directions  given  in  the  United 
Stai  s  Ordnance  Manual,  and  it  is  to  be  presumed  that 
these  are  the  directions  that  are  followed  in  the  government 
armories. 

Matei'ials  for  Brouming  Mixture. — Spirits  of  wine,  IJ  oz. ; 
tincture  of  steel,  1^  oz. ;  corrosive  sublimate,  Ijoz. ;  sweet 
s})irits  of  nitre,  1^  oz. ;  blue  vitriol,  1  oz. ;  nitric  acid,  }  oz. 
To  be  mixed  and  dissolved  in  one  quart  of  warm  water,  the 
mixture  to  be  kept  in  glass  bottles  and  not  in  earthen  jugs. 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  61 

Previous  to  commencing  the  operation  of  browning,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  ban-el  or  other  part  should  be  made  quite 
bright  with  emery  or  a  fine  smooth  file  (but  not  burnished), 
after  which  it  must  be  carefully  cleaned  from  all  greasiness;  a 
small  quantity  of  powdered  lime  rubbed  well  over  every  j^ai-tf 
of  the  barrel,  is  the  best  for  this  jjurpose,  but  in  the  case  of 
old  work,  wliich  is  very  oily  or  greasy,  or  when  the  oil  or 
grease  has  become  dried  or  gummed  on  the  surface,  the  bar- 
rels must  be  first  washed  with  a  strong  solution  of  potash  in 
warm  water.  After  this  the  lime  may  be  ajjplied.  Plugs  of 
wood  are  then  to  be  put  into  the  muzzle  of  the  barrel  and 
into  the  vent,  and  the  mixtiire  aj^plied  to  every  part  with  a 
clean  sponge  or  rag.  The  barrel  is  then  to  be  exposed  to  the 
air  for  twenty -four  hours,  after  which  time  it  is  to  be  well 
riibbed  over  with  a  steel  scratch-card  or  scratch-brush,  until 
the  rust  is  entirely  removed;  the  mixture  may  then  be  ap- 
jjlied  again,  as  before,  and  in  a  few  hours  the  barrel  will  be 
sufficiently  corroded  for  the  operation  of  scratch-brushing  to 
be  repeated.  The  same  process  of  scratching  off  the  rust  and 
applying  the  mixture  is  to  be  repeated  twice  or  three  times  a 
day  for  four  or  five  days,  by  which  time  the  barrel  will  be  of 
a  veiy  dark  brown  color. 

When  the  barrel  is  sufficiently  brown,  and  the  riist  has 
been  carefully  removed  from  every  part,  about  a  quart  of 
boiling  water  should  be  poured  over  every  part  of  the  bar- 
rel, in  order  that  the  action  of  the  acid  mixture  upon  the 
ban-el  may  be  destroyed,  and  the  rust  thereby  iJrevented 
from  rising  again. 

The  barrel,  when  cold,  should  afterwards  be  rubbed  over 
with  linseed  oil  or  sperm  oil.  It  is  particularly  directed  that 
the  steel  scratch-card  or  scratch-brush  be  used  in  the  place 
of  a  hard  hair-brush,  otherwise  the  browning  will  not  be 
durable  nor  have  a  good  apjiearance. 

If  the  work  be  handled  with  unclean  or  greasy  hands,  im- 
perfectly browned  places  will  show  where  the  hands  have 
touched  the  ban-els. 

Varnish  for  Browned  Iron. — Shellac,  1  oz. ;  dragon's  blood, 
3-16ths  of  an  oz. ;  alcohol,  1  quart. 

Very  complete  directions  for  browning  gun-barrels  niiiy 
be  found  in  a  little  book  called  "Shooting  on  the  Wing," 
which  may  be  obtained  from  the  publishers  of  this  vol- 
ume. 


«2  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

Handles,  To  Fasten. 

The  handles  of  knives,  forks,  and  similar  articles,  that 
have  come  oflf  by  being  put  in  hot  water,  may  be  fastened  on 
in  the  following  manner: 

1.  Take  powdered  resin  and  mix  with  it  a  small  quantity 
of  powdered  chalk,  whiting  or  slaked  lime.  Fill  the  hole 
in  the  handle  with  the  mixture,  heat  the  tang  of  the  knife  or 
fork  and  thrust  in.     When  cold  it  will  be  securely  fastened. 

2.  Take  one  lb.  resin  and  8  oz.  suljjhur,  melt  together, 
form  into  bars,  or  when  cold  reduce  to  jjowder.  One  part  of 
the  powder  is  to  be  mixed  with  half  a  part  of  iron  filings, 
brick  dust  or  fine  sand;  fill  the  cavity  of  the  handle  with  the 
mixture  and  insert  the  tang,  previously  heated. 

3.  Brick  dust  and  powdered  resin,  make  a  very  good  com- 
position. It  may  be  melted  and  poured  into  the  handle,  or 
powdered  and  then  put  in,  and  the  tang  inserted  warm. 

4.  Chopped  hair,  flax,  hemp  or  tow,  mixed  with  powdered 
resin  and  applied  as  above. 

5.  One  pound  colophony,  8  oz.  sulphur;  melt,  and  when 
cool  reduce  to  powdei*.  Mix  with  this  some  fine  sand  or 
brick  dust,  and  use  as  stated. 

6.  Take  a  portion  of  a  quill,  put  it  into  the  handle,  warm 
the  tang  and  insei't  it  into  the  quill  in  the  handle,  and  press 
it  firmly.  This  is  a  simple  method,  and  answers  the  purpose 
required  very  well. 

Ink. 

The  varieties  of  writing-fluids  that  have  been  devised  and 
introduced  are  almost  innumerable,  but  for  practical  pur- 
l^oses  the  inks  in  common  use  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes,  viz:  1.  Those  which  consist  of  a  j^owder  mechanic- 
ally divided  and  suspended  in  water  by  means  of  mucilage. 
2.  Those  which  consist  of  chemical  precipitates  held  in  sus- 
pension in  the  same  way.  3.  Those  which  consist  of  a  true 
solution  of  some  coloring  matter,  such  as  aniline  or  carmine. 
Of  the  first  class,  Indian  or  China  ink  is  the  great  type.  It 
consists  of  carbon  in  the  form  of  very  fine  lamp-black,  ground 
to  a  state  of  impalpable  fineness  in  water,  and  mixed  with 
some  pure  form  of  gelatine.  Its  use  is  wholly  restricted  to 
draughtsmen,  who  prefer  it  for  several  reasons.  In  the  first 
place,  it  gives  the  finest  and  clearest  black  of  any  ink  known; 
second,  it  is  unchangeable;  and  in  the  third  place,  it  does 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  63 

not  corroJe  the  fine  and  expensive  steel  instruments  with 
which  it  is  used.  A  really  good  article  of  Indian  ink  is  some- 
what difficult  to  find.  Much  of  the  ink  in  mai-ket  is  gritty, 
and  instead  of  being  a  fine  jet  black,  it  is  of  a  blueish-gray 
color.  Moreover,  notwithstanding  all  the  grinding  that  the 
artist  can  give  it,  the  particles  are  always  coarse,  and  it  does 
not  readily  sink  into  the  paper.  With  such  ink  it  is  difiicult 
to  draw  fine,  clear,  black  lines,  and  utterly  impossible  to 
produce  a  soft  mellow  tint  in  shading.  It  is  probable  that 
the  quality  of  tho  ink  depends  not  only  upon  the  materials 
from  which  it  is  mude,  but  upon  the  method  pursued  in  its 
manufacture,  and  in  regard  to  both  these  points  we  are  as  yet 
wholly  in  the  dark.  When  good  Indian  ink  is  wanted,  there- 
fore, the  only  method  of  securing  it  is  to  test  carefully  the 
various  samples,  until  we  get  a  good  one,  and  then  secure  a 
supply  that  will  last  indefinitely.  Fortunately  the  last  is  not 
a  difiicult  thing  to  do,  when  we  have  found  a  sample  that 
suits  us;  for  a  single  stick  of  Indian  ink,  if  carefully  used, 
will  last  many  years,  even  in  the  hands  of  a  professional 
draughtsman.  Of  late  years  a,  liquid  Indian  ink  has  been  in- 
troduced, and  has  given  good  stxtisfaction,  but  it  is  scarce  and 
expensive.  Since  the  ordinary  Indian  ink  is  made  up  with  a 
fine  animal  glue,  instead  of  mucilage  made  of  vegetable  gum, 
it  very  soon  decomposes  when  groand  up  with  water.  Hence 
it  can  not  be  kept  in  bottles  like  ordinary  ink,  but  must  be 
prepared  fresh  whenever  it  is  needed.  As  an  ink  for  ordinary 
writing  it  is  worthless,  for  the  simple  reason  that  it  does  not 
flow  well,  though  for  purposes  where  an  absolutely  indelible 
ink  is  needed — as,  for  instance,  in  writing  out  deeds  and 
records — nothing  better  can  be  obtained.  When  used  for 
this  purpose,  the  addition  of  a  very  small  quantity  of  caustic 
alkali — or,  what  is  better  yet,  of  ox-gall — causes  it  to  flow 
freely  and  to  sink  deeply  into  the  paper  or  other  material 
use»?  to  receive  it,  provided  the  latter  be  not  too  heavily 
sized.  When  properly  applied,  neither  heat,  moisture,  acids, 
alkalies,  nor  chemicals  of  any  kind,  affect  it;  and  it  might 
liierefore  be  properly  used  to  write  those  records  which  are 
placed  under  the  corner-stones  of  important  buildings,  and 
which  are  expected  to  endure  for  an  indefinite  period. 

The  second  class  of  inks  comprises  all  those  black  inks  and 
writing  fluids  that  are  commonly  employed  for  commercial 
correspondence  and  records.     The  different  formulse  for  the 


64  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

preparation  of  ink  that  have  been  published,  ■would  fill  a 
good  sized  volume;  but  most  of  the  inks  and  Avriting  fluids  in 
market  consist  of  a  precipitate  of  gallate  or  tannate  of  Jron. 
held  in  suspension  by  means  of  mucilage.  Since  iron  may 
be  used  in  either  one  of  two  distinct  conditions  when  it  is 
employed  for  the  manufacture  of  ink,  it  follows  that  two  dis- 
tinct kinds  of  ink  may  be  made  fi'om  it.  In  one  of  these  the 
iron  is  fully  oxidated,  and  the  ink  is  of  a  deep  jet  black.  The 
precipitate  of  iron  which  exists  in  such  ink  seems  to  assume 
a  coarse  and  heavy  form,  with  a  strong  tendency  to  sink  to 
the  bottom  of  the  containing  vessel.  It  therefore  requires  a 
large  proi^ortion  of  mucilage  to  keep  the  coloring  matter  in 
suspension.  The  advantage  which  it  possesses,  is,  that  the 
ink  is,  from  the  very  first,  of  a  deep  black  ;  but  on  the  other 
hand,  the  objections  are  qixite  as  important,  and  consist  in 
the  fact  that  it  can  not  be  made  to  flow  freely,  and  that  it 
does  not  sink  well  into  the  paper,  and  is  consequently  easily 
removed.  On  the  other  hand,  ink  made  with  salts  in  Avhich 
the  iron  exists  as  protoxide,  is  always  pale  at  first,  but  after- 
wards assiimes  a  dark  hue;  it  flows  freely  and  sinks  well  into 
the  fibre,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  remove  marks  made  by  it. 
This  character  it  is  apt  to  lose,  however,  when  exposed  to 
the  air,  as  we  shall  note  when  speaking  of  the  preservation  of 
ink. 

In  some  cases  a  compromise  is  made,  and  the  ink  is  pre- 
15ared  from  materials,  part  of  which  only  are  in  a  state  of 
complete  oxidation.  An  attempt  is  thus  made  to  secure  an 
ink,  which,  while  black  from  the  first,  will  flow  freely  and 
sink  well  into  the  paper,  and  some  very  good  inks  are  thus 
compounded. 

Most  of  the  inlvs  known  as  violet,  mauve,  blue,  red,  car- 
mine, etc.,  consist  of  true  chemical  solutions,  generally 
nowadays  of  aniline,  though  the  finest  red  ink  is  still  made 
from  carmine  dissolved  in  ammonia.  From  the  fact  tliat 
there  is  no  solid  material  to  be  kept  in  supension,  these  inks 
do  not  require  mucilage  in  their  comiDosition  provided  they 
are  used  on  paper  that  has  a  good  deal  of  size  in  it;  they  con- 
sequently flow  freely,  do  not  leave  a  heavy  streak  of  liquid 
behind  the  pen,  and  the  streak  that  they  do  leave  sinks 
almost  instantly  into  the  paper  and  disappears.  In  using 
them,  no  blotter  is  required;  and  they  are,  therefore,  great 
favorites  with  authors  and  those  persons  who  pay  less  regard 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  fiS 

to  the  color  of  their  writing  than  to  the  ease  with  which  the 
work  is  done,  and  the  clearness  and  unblotted  appearance 
which  it  presents.  But  from  the  fact  that  no  really  good 
black  ink  of  this  class  has  yet  been  produced,  they  have  not 
come  into  general  use  amongst  book-keepers  and  commercial 
men,  and  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  on  the  whole  a  good 
black  ink  gives  a  better  appearance  to  a  set  of  books  than  ink 
of  any  other  color. 

Ink  used  for  copying  letters  by  means  of  the  press,  requires 
to  be  thicker  than  that  used  for  ordinary  writing,  and  there- 
fore it  is  less  pleasant  to  use;  but  the  great  advantage  which 
att^dds  the  mechanical  process  of  copying  letters  will  always 
keep  up  the  demand  for  it. 

Such  being  the  peculiar  character  of  the  inks  in  common 
use,  it  may  be  well  to  say  a  few  words  concerning  the  best 
methods  of  preserving  them  in  good  condition.  The  great 
enemies  of  all  inks  are  evaporation,  dust,  and  decomposition, 
and,  in  the  case  of  iron  inks,  oxidation.  The  first  difficulty 
can  only  be  avoided  by  keei^ing  the  ink  from  exposux'e  to  the 
air,  and  this  is  best  effected  by  adopting  an  inkstand  in  which 
the  ink  exposes  a  very  small  surface  to  the  air.  Many  of 
the  inkstands  in  use  are  made  large  at  the  base,  for  the  \n\Y- 
pose  of  rendering  them  difficult  to  overturn.  In  such  stands 
the  ink  is  spread  out  in  a  thin,  wide  layer,  and  not  only 
evaporates  rapidly,  but  where  ordinary  black  ink  is  used,  the 
ii'on  oxidates,  and  the  ink  consequently  deteriorates.  A  veiy 
common  practice  on  the  part  of  those  who  use  ink,  is  to  leave 
the  mouth  of  the  stand  uncovered,  in  which  case  the  ink 
becomes  in  a  short  time  reduced  to  mud.  All  these  diffi- 
culties may  be  in  a  measure  avoided  by  using  a  heavy  stand, 
having  a  small  well  or  ink-holder,  which  should  be  kept  well 
covered  when  not  in  use,  and  ought  to  be  frequently  cleaned, 
the  old  ink  being  thrown  away.  The  sxtpply  of  ink  should 
be  kejit  in  a  bottle,  securely  corked,  and  when  the  stand  is 
filled,  the  new  ink  ought  never  to  be  poured  into  the  old,  as 
is  generally  done.  Throw  the  old  ink  aAvay;  wash  out  the 
stand  carefully,  and  fill  it  up  with  new  fluid,  and  then  you 
can  enjoy  the  luxury  of  writing  with  ink  that  flows  freely, 
and  does  not  take  half  a  minute  to  moisten  the  paj^er  at  each 
stroke  that  you  attempt  to  make.  To  keep  ink  in  good 
order,  the  stand  skould  be  washed  out  every  two  or  three 
weeks. 


66  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

Many  inks,  especially  those  made  with  iron  and  galls,  are 
liable  to  mould  and  decompose.  The  formation  of  mould 
may,  to  a  certain  extent,  be  i^revented  by  the  use  of  creosote, 
carbolic  acid,  or  cloves,  and  most  of  the  better  class  of  inks 
in  market  are  prepared  so  as  to  resist  this  evil. 

In  the  recipes  generally  given  for  making  ink,  it  is  recom- 
mended to  boil  the  ingredients.  A  much  better  plan  is  to 
powder  the  galls  and  macerate  them  in  cold  water.  By  this 
latter  process,  more  time  is  of  course  necessary  to  make  it; 
but  then  the  ink  is  very  superior,  and  entirely  free  from 
extractive  matter  which  has  no  inky  quality,  and  which 
only  tends  to  clog  the  pen  and  to  turn  the  ink  ropy  and 
mouldy. 

Black  Ink. — 1.  In  1  gallon  of  water  macerate  1  lb.  of  finely 
powdered  Aleppo  galls  for  two  weeks,  and  strain  off  the 
liquid.  Dissolve  5^  oz.  sulphate  of  iron  and  5  oz.  gum  arable 
in  as  little  water  as  is  necessary,  and  mix  the  two  liquids  with 
constant  stirring.  Keep  in  a  tall  bottle,  allow  it  to  settle  for 
some  days,  and  it  will  be  ready  for  use. 

2.  Take  gall  nuts,  broken,  one  pound;  sulphate  of  iron, 
half  a  pound;  gum  acacia  and  sugar  candy,  of  each,  a  quarter 
of  a  pound ;  water,  three  quarts.  Place  the  whole  of  these 
ingredients  in  a  vessel  where  they  can  be  agitated  once  a 
day;  after  standing  for  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks  the  ink  is 
ready  for  use.  Logwood  and  similar  materials,  are  often 
advised  to  be  used  in  conjunction  with  the  gall  nuts,  but 
they  serve  no  good  purpose  unless  it  be  to  make  a  cheaper 
article  which  fades  rapidly. 

3.  It  is  said  that  the  juice  of  elder*,  erries  to  which  sul- 
phate of  iron  has  been  added,  makes  a  good  ink.  The  best 
formula  is  said  to  be  12i  pints  juice  and  i  oz.  each  sulphate 
of  iron  and  crude  pyroligneous  acid. 

Rimge's  Black  Ink. — 1.  The  original  recipe  of  the  inventor 
is  as  follows:  Digest  i  lb.  logwood  in  chips  for  12  hours  in  3 
pints  boiling  water.  Simmer  down  gently  to  1  quart,  filter 
and  add  20  grains  yellow  chromate  of  potassa. 

2.  The  following  modification  of  the  above  is  more  easily 
prepared:  Dissolve  16  parts  of  extract  of  logwood  in  1,000 
parts  of  water,  and  add  1  part  of  neutral  potassium  chromate 
(yellow  chromate  of  potassa). 

Blrie  Ink. — Take  6  drachms  pure  Prussian  blue  and  1 
drachm  oxalic  acid.     Grind  in  a  mortar  with  a  little  water 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  67 

until  they  form  a  perfectly  smooth  paste.  Dissolve  a  suf- 
ficient quantity  of  this  paste  in  water  to  give  the  proper  tint. 

Qxrmine  Ink,  French  Process. — Take  22  gi'ammes  (4  grains) 
of  the  best  carmine,  add  to  it  sixty-five  grammes  (2  ouncesj 
of  caustic  ammonia,  add  one  gramme  (15  J  grains)  of  white 
gum  arable.  Leave  the  mixture  until  the  gum  is  entirely 
dissolved.  This  ink  is  undoubtedly  dearer  than  that  pre- 
pared in  the  ordinaiy  way,  but  it  is  incomparably  more 
beautiful  and  more  durable,  for  experience  has  proved  tb:;t 
letters  written  with  this  ink,  have  for  forty  years  been  pre- 
served without  the  slightest  alteration. 

Red  Ink. — Boil  ^  lb.  of  Brazil  wood,  i  oz.  of  gum,  J  oz. 
of  sugar,  and  ^  oz.  of  alum  in  a  sufiicient  quantity  of  vinegar. 

Aniline  Inks. — The  following  formulae  for  aniline  inks  are 
from  recent  authorities,  and  are  said  to  give  superior  results : 

Alcoholic  Solutions. — 1.  General  Formula:  Dissolve  15 
parts  of  aniline  color  in  150  j)arts  of  strong  alcohol  in  a  ves- 
sel of  glass  or  enamelled  iron  for  three  hours;  then  add  1,000 
parts  distilled  water;  heat  gently  for  some  hours, — in  fact, 
till  the  odor  of  the  alcohol  has  quite  disappeared;  then  add 
a  solution  consisting  of  60  parts  of  powdered  gum  arable  in 
250  parts  of  water. 

2.  Special  Formula  for  Violet :  Digest  i  oz.  aniline  violet 
in  1  oz.  alcohol  in  a  suitable  vessel,  as  above,  for  three  hours ; 
then  add  1  qt.  of  distilled  water,  and  heat  gently  till  odor  of 
spirit  is  dissipated.  Then  add  2  drachms  giim  arable  dis- 
solved in  i  pt.  water,  and  allow  the  whole  to  settle.  This 
will  bear  dilution,  if  desired,  with  an  additional  quantity  of 
distilled  water. 

3.  Special  Formula  for  Blue:  Dissolve  15  grains  aniline 
blue  in  1  oz.  alcohol,  and  add  6  oz.  in  distilled  water.  Boil 
in  proper  vessel,  as  above,  until  odor  of  alcohol  has  dis- 
appeared. Then  add  3  drachms  powdered  gum  arable  dis- 
solved in  4  oz.  distilled  water.  Finally  filter.  It  will  be 
perceived  that  there  is  considerable  difference  in  the  above 
special  formulae,  but  there  can  be  no  harm  in  making  it  too 
strong,  as  it  is  no  diflficult  matter  to  dilute  with  distilled 
water  to  taste. 

Aqueous  Solutions. — 1.  Magenta,  1  oz.  to  the  gallon  of 
boiling  distilled  water.  2.  Violet:  J  oz.  to  a  gallou  ditto. 
3.  Blue:  1  oz  ^'(  *0  pts.  ditto.  4.  Green:  I  oz.  to  5  pta. 
ditto. 


68  THE  WOKKSHCP  COMPANION. 

The  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  vinegar  will  consider- 
ably improve  the  color  of  blue  aniline  fluid.  These  aqueous 
solutions  are  very  enduring,  though  not  exactly  permanent, 
as  they  give  way  to  long-continued  exjiosure  to  sunlight. 
They  are  very  limpid,  dry  quickly,  and  never  clog.  They 
should  of  course  be  filtered. 

Gold  Ink. — Grind  gold-leaf  with  honey  in  a  mortar  until  it 
is  reduced  to  a  fine  powder.  Wash  out  the  honey  with  hot 
water  and  add  mucilage  of  gum  arable.  A  cheaj)  article  may 
be  made  by  lasing  yellow  bronze  powder. 

Silver  Ink. — Prepared  in  the  same  way  as  gold  ink,  rising 
silver  leaf  or  silver  bronze  powder. 

Marking  Ink  for  Linen.- — Dissolve  \  oz.  nitrate  of  silver  in 
1  oz.  water  and  add  strong  liquid  ammonia  ttntil  the  precipi- 
tate which  is  at  first  formed  is  redissolved.  Add  Ij  drachms 
gum  mucilage  and  enough  coloring  ma  er  to  render  the 
writing  clearly  visible.  The  writing  is  r  .ide  black  and  in- 
delible by  passing  a  hot  iron  over  it.     Keep  in  the  dark. 

IndeliV  '■  Aniline  Ink. — Triturate  Ij  grammes  of  aniline- 
black  with  60  drops  of  strong  hydrochloric  acid  and  42  or  43 
gi-ammes  strongest  alcohol;  then  add  to  it  a  hot  solution  of 
2i  grammes  gum  arable  in  170  grammes  of  water. 

This  ink  attacks  steel  pens  but  little.  It  is  not  destroyed 
either  by  strong  mineral  acids  or  by  strong  lye. 

If  the  first  alcoholic  solution  of  aniline  black  be  diluted 
with  a  solution  of  2^  grammes  of  shellac  in  140  grammes  of 
alcr'^iol  (instead  of  gum  arable  in  170  grammes  of  water)  an 
ink  is  produced  which  may  be  employed  for  writing  on  wood, 
brass  or  leather,  and  which  is  remarkable  for  its  deep  black 
color. 

Indelible  Indian  Ink. — Draughtsmen  are  well  aware  of  the 
fact  that  lines  drawn  on  paper  with  good  India  ink  which 
has  been  well  prepared,  can  not  be  washed  out  by  mere 
sponging  or  washing  with  a  brush.  Now,  however,  it  is 
pro^josed  to  take  advantage  of  the  fact  that  glue  or  gelatine, 
when  mixed  with  bichromate  of  potassa,  and  exposed  to  the 
light,  becomes  insoluble,  and  thus  renders  India  ink,  Avhich 
always  contains  a  little  gelatine,  indelible.  Reisenbichler, 
the  discoverer,  calls  this  kind  of  ink  "Harttusch,"  or  "hard 
India  ink  ;"  it  is  made  by  adding  to  the  common  article,  when 
making,  about  one  per  cent.,  in  a  very  fine  i^owder,  of 
bichromate  of  potash      This  must  be  mixed  with  the  ink  in 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  69 

a  dry  state;  otherwise,  it  is  said,  the  ink  could  not  be  ground 
uji  easily  in  water.  Those  who  can  not  jjrovide  themselves 
with  ink  prepared  as  above  in  the  cake,  can  use  a  dilute 
solution  of  bichromate  of  potash  in  rubbing  up  the  ink;  it 
answers  the  same  purpose,  though  the  ink  should  be  used 
thick,  so  that  the  yellow  salt  will  not  sjjread. 

Indestructible  Ink.. — An  ink  that  can  not  be  erased  with 
acids  is  obtained  by  the  following  recipe :  To  good  gall  ink 
add  a  strong  solution  of  fine  soluble  Prussian  blue  in  dis- 
tilled water.  This  addition  makes  the  ink,  which  was  pre- 
viously j)roof  against  alkalies,  equally  proof  against  acids, 
and  forms  a  A\Titing  fluid  which  cannot  be  erased  Avithout 
destroying  the  j^aper.  The  ink  writes  greenish  blue,  but 
afterwards  turns  black. 

Ink  that  trill  not  Freeze. — It  is  said  that  a  mixture  of  equal 
parts  of  concentrated  glycerine,  alcohol  and  water,  deeply 
colored  with  aniline  black,  does  not  freeze  in  the  coldest 
weather,  flows  freely  from  the  pen,  and  does  not  spread. 
Our  only  fear  would  be  that  such  ink  would  not  dry  thor- 
oughly. 

Sympathetic  Ink  or  Sea-et  Ink. — "Write  with  thin  solution  of 
starch,  and  let  the  correspondent  wash  with  solution  of 
iodine. 

2.  Write  with  milk,  onion  juice  or  lemon  juice,  and  let 
the  correspondent  expose  to  heat. 

3.  Write  with  solution  of  tartar  emetic  and  wash  with  any 
alkaline  sulphuret. 

4.  Brown. — On  dissolving  1  part  of  potassium  bromide, 
and  1  part  of  copper  sulj)hate  in  20  parts  of  water,  and 
writing  with  the  solution  on  paper,  ve7y  careful  heating  will 
turn  the  writing  brown. 

5.  Yellowish-green. — Writing  done  with  a  solution  of  2 
parts  of  potassium  chromate,  2  of  nitric  acid,  2  of  sodium 
chloride  in  40  parts  of  water,  turns  yellowish-green  on  gentle 
warming. 

6.  Bhie. — A  solution  of  equal  parts  of  sodiom  chloride 
and  cobalt  chloride  in  20  times  the  amount  of  water  pro- 
duces lines  which  turn  blue  on  gentle  warming. 

Letters  may  be  written  on  postal  cards  with  these  inks, 
and  will  remain  invisible  imtil  washed  with  the  approjjriate 
solution  or  exposed  to  heat.  To  prevent  the  letters  from 
being  seen  by  close  scrutiny  the  solutions  should  be  very 


70  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

dilute,  and  to  distract  the  attention  of  those  not  in  the 
secret,  write  some  unimportant  matter,  in  lines  far  apairt, 
and  between  them  write  the  private  matter  in  secret  or  sym- 
pathetic ink. 

Inks  for  Biibber  Stamps  mid  Stencils. — 1.  Black.  Rnb  to- 
gether one  part  of  finest  lampblack  and  2  parts  of  Prussian 
blue  with  a  little  glycerin,  then  add  1  part  powdered  gum 
arabic,  and  enough  glycerin  to  form  a  thin  paste. 

2.  Carmine. — Dissolve  24  grains  of  carmine  in  3  fl.  oz.  of 
water  of  ammonia,  then  add  2  fl.  drachms  of  glycerin. 
Incorporate  with  this  i  oz.  of  powdered  gum  arabic. 

3.  Blue. — Rub  together  6  parts  of  pure  Prussian  blue  and 
1  part  oxalic  acid  with  a  little  water,  to  a  perfectly  smooth 
paste.  Let  it  stand  in  a  rather  warm  place  over  night,  then 
rub  it  with  more  water,  and  with  1  part  of  gum  arabic  to  a 
thin  paste. 

4.  Aniline  inks  may  be  made  of  any  desired  shade  in  the 
same  manner.  The  best  way  of  using  these  inks  is  by  ap- 
plying them,  hj  means  of  a  small  pad,  uniformly  to  a  little 
cushion,  on  which  the  stamps  are  then  inked. 

The  above  formulse  have  been  tested  by  experience,  and 
are  said  to  give  good  results.  Another  set  of  formulae,  also 
highly  recommended,  is  the  following: 

5.  Black. — Finest  lampblack,  10  jiarts  ;  i:)owdered  gum 
arabic,  4  parts  ;  glycerin,  4  parts  ;  water,  3  parts.  Dissolve 
the  gum  arabic  in  the  water,  add  the  glycerin,  then  rub  the 
lampblack  with  the  mixture  in  a  mortar. 

6.  Colored. — Replace  the  lampblack  in  the  above  formula 
by  the  appropriate  color ;  chrome-yellow  for  yellow ;  red 
lead  or  red  ochre  for  red  ;  green,  ultramarine,  or  chrome- 
green  for  green  ;  indigo  or  Prussian  blue,  or  blue  ultramarine 
for  blue  ;  umber  for  brown,  etc. 

Ink  Eraser. 

A  good  ink  eraser  is  thus  made  :  Take  of  chloride  of  lime, 
one  pound,  thoroughly  pulverized,  and  four  quarts  of  soft 
water.  The  above  must  be  thoroughly  shaken  when  first  put 
together.  It  is  required  to  stand  twenty -four  hours  to  dis- 
solve the  chloride  of  lime  ;  then  strain  through  a  cotton  cloth, 
after  which  add  a  teaspoonful  of  acetic  acid  to  every  ounce 
of  the  chloride  of  lime  water.  The  eraser  is  used  by  revers- 
ing the  penholder  into  the  fluid,  and  applying  it,  without 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  71 

rubbing,  to  the  word,  figure,  or  blot  required  to  be  erased. 
When  the  ink  has  disapi^eared,  absorb  the  fluid  with  a  blot- 
ter, and  the  paper  is  immediately  ready  to  write  upon  again. 
Chloride  of  lime  has  before  been  iised  with  acids  for  the 
purpose  as  above  i^roposed  ;  but  in  all  previous  processes  the 
chloride  of  lime  has  been  mixed  with  acids  that  burn  and 
destroy  the  paper. 

Inlaying. 

Inlaying  is  a  term  apj^lied  to  work  in  which  certain  figures 
which  have  been  cut  out  of  one  kind  of  material  are  filled  up 
with  another  of  a  difierent  color.  Such  work  is  known  ns 
marquetry,  and  also  as  Boule  work,  and  Reisner  work,  from 
the  names  of  two  famoiis  French  artists. 

The  simplest  method  of  producing  inlaid  work  in  wood,  is 
to  take  two  thin  boards,  of  wood  or  veneers,  and  glue  them 
together  with  paper  Ijetween,  so  that  they  may  be  easily  sep- 
arated again.  Then,  having  drawn  the  required  figures  on 
them,  cut  along  the  lines  with  a  very  fine,  hair-like  saw. 
This  process  is  known  as  counterpart  sawing,  and  by  it  the 
pieces  removed  from  one  piece  of  wood,  so  exactly  cori'es- 
pond  with  the  perforations  in  the  other  piece,  that  when 
the  two  colors  are  separated  and  interchanged,  the  one  mate- 
rial forms  the  ground  and  the  other  the  inlay  or  pattern.  If 
the  saw  be  fine  and  the  wood  very  dry  when  cut,  but  after- 
tvards  slightly  damped  when  glued  in  its  place,  the  joint  is 
visible  only  on  very  close  inspection,  and  then  merely  as  a  fine 
line.  After  being  cut,  the  boards  or  veneers  are  separated 
(which  is  easily  done  by  splitting  the  j^aper  between  them), 
and  then  glued  in  their  places  on  the  work  which  they  are  to 
ornament. 

Imitation  Inlai/ing. — Sui^pose  an  oak  panel  with  a  design 
inlaid  with  walnut  is  wanted.  Grain  the  panel  wholly  in  oil. 
This  is  not  a  bad  ground  for  walnut.  When  the  oak  is  dry, 
grain  the  whole  of  the  i^anel  in  distemper.  Have  a  pajior 
with  the  design  drawn  thereon,  the  back  of  which  has  Ix^en 
rubi)Pd  with  whiting,  place  it  on  the  panel,  and  with  a 
pointed  stick  trace  the  design.  Then  with  a  brush  and  (luick 
varnish  trace  the  whole  of  the  design.  When  the  varnish  is 
dry,  witli  a  sponge  and  water  remove  the  distemper,  whi^ie 
the  varnish  has  not  touched.  This,  if  well  executed,  pre 
sents  a  most  beautiful  imitation  of  inlaid  wood.  Marble.' 
are  executed  in  a  similar  manner. 


72  THE  WOEKSHOP  COMPANION. 

Iron. 

This  is  imdoTibteclly  tlie  most  important  metal  used  in  the 
arts.  Directions  for  working  it,  such  at  least  as  would  be 
valuable  to  professional  blacksmiths,  would  occiii^y  more 
sj^ace  than  we  can  afibrd,  and  we  therefore  content  ourselves 
with  a  few  hints  for  amateurs. 

Forging.- — As  a  general  rule,  those  who  are  not  practical 
blacksmiths  had  better  take  their  work  to  a  smith's  shop. 
Cases  may,  however,  arise  where  it  is  necessary  to  forge 
some  little  job,  and  the  following  hints  may  jirove  of  use. 

In  working  iron  a  great  deal  depends  upon  the  degTee  of 
heat  to  which  it  is  raised.  Blacksmiths  distinguish  live 
degrees,  which  they  name  as  follows  : 

1.  The  black-red  heat,  just  visible  by  daylight. 

2.  The  low-red  heat. 

3.  The  bright  red  heat,  when  the  black  scales  may  be  seen. 

4.  The  white  heat,  when  the  scales  are  scarcely  visible. 

5.  The  welding  heat,  when  the  iron  begins  to  burn  with 
vivid  sparks. 

Of  these  temperatures  the  1st,  2nd  and  3rd  are  easily  at- 
tained in  a  common  stove  or  grate.  It  requires  good  man- 
agement to  secure  the  4tli  in  a  common  stove,  and  the  5th 
can  hardly  be  obtained  without  a  blast.  The  higher  the 
temperature  the  softer  and  more  easily  woi'ked  the  metal 
becomes,  and  the  less  liable  to  crack  or  split  ;  and  as  good 
iron  is  not  easily  spoilt,  like  steel,  by  a  high  heat,  it  is  always 
best  to  get  the  metal  pretty  soft. 

Welding. — This  operation  requires  considerable  skill.  The 
two  great  points  to  be  attended  to  in  making  a  perfect  weld 
are  that  the  metal  shall  be  brought  to  a  x)roper  temperature, 
and  that  the  surfaces  to  be  united  shall  be  perfectly  clean. 
The  latter  point  can  only  be  secured  by  j^rotecting  the  iroc 
from  the  action  of  the  air  by  means  of  some  flux.  Sand  is 
generally  used  by  blacksmiths  and  answers  very  well.  When 
sand  is  brought  into  contact  with  oxide  of  iron  at  a  high 
temperature,  it  combines  Avith  it  and  forms  a  fiisible  glass 
which  flows  over  the  surface  of  the  iron  and  is  easily  driven 
out  of  the  joint  by  pressure.  Borax  makes  a  still  more  fusi- 
ble flux  and  may  be  successfully  used  by  amateurs,  but  is  too 
expensive  for  common  use. 

When  two  surfaces  of  iron,  which  have  been  cleansed  by 
means  of  sand  or  borax,  are  brought  together  at  a  high  heat 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  .     73 

and  forcibly  pressed  into  contact  by  liammering  or  pressure, 
they  unite  to  form  a  solid  mass.  Bearing  these  lirinciples  in 
mind,  a  little  practice  will  soon  enable  any  one  to  make  a  re- 
spectable joint  by  welding. 

Case-hardening. — This  process  is  simply  the  conversion  of 
the  surface  of  a  piece  of  ii'on  into  steel.  Case-hardened  arti- 
cles, when  plunged  into  cold  water  while  highly  heated,  be- 
come as  hard  as  the  hardest  steel,  but  they  may  be  annealed 
and  softened  so  as  to  be  easily  worked  with  files  and  turning 
tools,  and  afterwards  hardened  again  so  as  to  be  as  durable 
as  ever.  There  are  several  processes  for  performing  this  op- 
eration.    The  following  have  been  tested  by  exjDerience  : 

1.  Where  it  is  desired  that  the  articles  should  be  hardened 
to  a  considerable  depth  :  Char  a  quantity  of  bones,  just 
enough  {and  no  more)  to  enable  you  to  powder  them  with  a 
hammer.  Lay  a  layer  of  this  bone  diist  over  the  bottom  of 
an  iron  tray  or  bos,  which  may  be  easily  made  by  bending 
heavy  sheet  iron  into  form.  Lay  the  articles  to  be  hardened 
on  the  bone  dust,  taking  care  that  they  do  not  touch  each 
other.  Cover  with  bone  diist  and  fill  up  the  tray  with  spent 
dust,  charcoal  or  sand.  Expose  to  a  bright  cherry  red  heat 
for  half  an  hour  or  an  hour,  and  then  turn  the  entire  contents 
of  the  tray  into  a  vessel  of  cold  water.  We  have  seen  beau- 
tifiil  results  obtained  by  this  process  when  carried  out  in  a 
common  kitchen  stove. 

Even  raw  bone  dust,  such  as  is  sold  for  farming  purposes, 
may  be  used  with  good  results.  Pieces  of  gas  pipe  make 
good  receptacles  to  hold  the  work,  the  ends  being  stopped 
with  iron  plugs.  "WTien  packmg  the  articles  in  the  tubes  or 
trays,  see  that  they  do  not  touch  each  other. 

Bone  black  or  ivory  black  may  also  be  iised,  and,  as  they 
may  be  purchased  ready  prepared,  we  may  avoid  the  disa- 
greeable process  of  roasting  the  raw  material. 

As  this  roasting  of  bones,  leather,  etc.,  gives  rise  to  most 
abominable  odors,  the  author  of  this  manual  some  years  ago 
devised  the  following  preparation,  which  was  found  to  give 
very  excellent  results.  Prejiare  a  strong  solution  of  prussiate 
of  potassa,  boil  in  it  as  much  coarsely-powdered  wood  char- 
coal as  can  be  mixed  with  it.  Drain  off  the  superfluous 
liquid,  spread  the  charcoal  on  a  board,  and  dry  by  exposure 
to  the  air.  TVlien  dry,  roast  it  at  a  temperature  just  below 
that  of  ignition,  the  object  being  to  di'ive  oflf  all  moisture. 


74  iHE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

l)ut  not  to  decompose  the  prussiate,  wliich,  at  a  red  lieat,  is 
converted  into  cyanide  of  potassium  and  some  other  com- 
l)oiinds.  The  charcoal  thus  prepared,  and  afterwards  re- 
duced to  a  moderately  fine  powder,  will  be  found  to  answer 
quite  as  well  as  animal  charcoal,  and  no  difficulty  will  he 
found  in  case-hardening  to  a  depth  wliich  will  allow  of  a  good 
deal  of  polishing  before  the  soft  metal  underneath  is  reached. 

2.  Where  mere  superficial  hardening  is  required,  heat  the 
article  to  be  hardened  to  a  bright  red  ;  sprinkle  it  liberally 
with  powdered  prussiate  of  potash.  The  salt  will  fuse,  and 
if  the  piece  of  iron  is  small  and  gets  cooled,  heat  it  again  and 
plunge  into  cold  water. 

Hust  and  Corrosion. — Iron  is  easily  corroded  by  even  the 
weak  acids.  Sulphuric  acid,  nitric  acid,  and  hydrochloric 
acid  all  act  on  it  quickly  and  powerfully.  Air  and  moisture 
also  quickly  corrode  it.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  carbonate 
of  soda  protects  iron  very  perfectly  from  rust.  We  have 
seen  a  piece  of  iron  that  had  been  kejit  in  a  solution  of  soda 
for  twenty  years,  and  yet  was  quite  bright. 

There  are  several  methods  of  protecting  iron  from  rust. 
Painting,  varnishing,  tinning,  zincing,  etc.,  have  all  been 
tried  with  good  effect.  Painting  and  varnishing  need  no  re- 
marks. Where  bright  work  is  to  be  temporarily  protected, 
however,  a  paint  of  white  lead  and  tallow  may  be  used. 
This  will  not  dry,  and  may  be  easily  and  quickly  removed 
with  a  little  turisentine. 

Zincing  Iron. — The  following  is  an  excellent  and  cheap 
method  for  protecting  from  rust,  iron  articles  exposed  to  the 
atmosphere,  such  as  cramp-irons  for  stone,  etc. :  They  are  to 
be  first  cleansed  by  placing  them  in  open  wooden  vessels,  in 
water  containing  three-fourths  to  one  per  cent,  of  common 
sulphuric  acid,  and  allowed  to  remain  in  it  until  the  surface 
api^ears  clean,  or  may  be  rendered  so  by  scouring  with  a  rag 
or  wet  sand.  According  to  the  amount  of  acid,  this  may  re- 
quire from  six  to  twenty-four  hours.  Fresh  acid  must  be 
added  according  to  the  extent  of  use  and  of  the  liquid  ;  when 
this  is  saturated  with  suljDhate  of  iron,  it  must  be  renewed. 
After  removal  from  this  bath,  the  articles  are  rinsed  in  fresh 
water,  and  scoured  until  they  acquire  a  clean  metallic  surface, 
and  then  kept  in  water  in  which  a  little  slaked  lime  has  been 
stirred,  until  the  next  operation.  When  thus  freed  from  rust, 
they  are  to  be  coated  with  a  thin  film  of  zinc,  while  cold,  by 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  71 

means  of  cliloride  of  zdnc,  which  may  be  made  by  filling  a 
glazed  earthen  vessel,  of  about  two-thirds  gallon  capacity, 
three-fourths  full  of  muriatic  acid,  and  adding  zinc  clippings 
until  efifervescence  ceases.  The  liquid  is  then  to  be  turned 
off  from  the  undissolved  zinc,  and  preserved  in  a  glass  vessel. 
For  use,  it  is  poiired  into  a  sheet-zinc  vessel,  of  suitable  size 
and  shape  for  the  objects,  and  about  1"30  per  cent,  of  its 
weight  of  finely  powdered  sal  ammoniac  added.  The  articles 
are  then  immersed  in  it,  a  scum  of  fine  bubbles  forming  on 
the  surface  in  from  one  to  two  minutes,  indicative  of  the 
completion  of  the  operation.  The  articles  are  next  drained, 
so  that  the  excess  may  flow  back  into  the  vessel.  The  iron 
articles  thus  coated  with  a  fine  film  of  zinc  are  placed  on 
clean  sheet  iron,  heated  from  beneath,  and  perfectly  dried, 
and  then  dipped  piece  by  piece,  by  means  of  tongs,  into  very 
hot  (though  not  glowing)  molten  zinc,  for  a  short  time,  until 
they  acquire  the  temperature  of  the  zinc.  They  are  then 
removed  and  beaten,  to  cause  the  excess  of  zinc  to  fall  off. 

Cold  Process  for  Zincing  Iron. — The  metal  is  first  cleaned 
by  being  placed  in  a  bath  made  up  of  water,  1,000  litres  ; 
cnlorhydrio  acid,  550  litres  ;  sulphuric  acid,  50  litres  ;  glycer- 
ine, 20  litres.  On  being  removed  from  this  bath,  the  metal 
is  placed  in  a  bath  containing  10  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of 
potassa,  and  is  next  transferred  to  a  metallizing  bath,  consist- 
ing of  water,  1,000  litres  ;  chloride  of  tin,  5  kilos. ;  chloride 
of  zinc,  4  kilos. ;  bitartrate  of  potassa,  8  kilos. ;  acid  sulphate 
of  alumina,  4  kilos. ;  chloride  of  aluminum,  10  kilos.  The 
metal  is  to  be  left  in  this  mixture  for  from  three  to  twelve 
hoiirs,  according  to  the  thickness  of  the  layer  of  zinc  to  be 
desired. 

Tinning  Iron. — The  surface  of  the  iron  is  cleaned  from  scale 
by  vitriol  or  sulphuric  acid,  and  then  scoured  with  sand.  It 
is  now  coated  with  a  strong  solution  of  chloride  of  zinc,  and 
dipped  into  melted  tin.  The  tin  will  instantly  adhere  t 
every  spot  that  is  clean. 

Tinning  Iron  in  the  Cold. — The  chief  point  which  requires 
attention  in  this  matter  is  that  the  tinning  of  ii'on  in  the  cold 
cannot  succeed  at  aU,  unless  the  bath  contains,  in  solution  or 
suspension,  an  organic  substance  like  starch  or  glucose. 
Although  no  precise  scientific  explanation  of  this  indispensi- 
ble  condition  has  been  hitherto  given.  To  100  litres  of 
water  are  added  3  kilos,  of  rye  meal ;  this  mixture  is  boiled 


f 


76  THE  WOEKSHOP  COMPANION. 

for  half  an  hotir,  and  next  filtered  through  cloth  ;  to  the 
flear  bnt  thickish  liquid  are  added  106  kilos,  of  pyroi^hos- 
p!iate  of  soda,  17  kilos,  of  protocliloride  of  tin  in  crystals  (so- 
called  tin-salt),  67  kilos,  of  neiitral  protochloride  of  tin,  100 
to  120  grms.  of  sulphuric  acid  ;  this  liquid  is  placed  in  well- 
made  Avooden  troughs,  and  serves  more  especially  for  the 
tinning  of  iron  and  steel  wire  (previously  polished)  for  the 
use  of  carding  machines.  Wlien  instead  of  the  two  sorts  of 
tin  just  named,  cyanide  of  silver  and  cyanide  of  potassium 
are  taken,  the  iron  is  j^erfectly  silvered. 

Brightening  Iron. — A  Bavarian  serial  contains  a  method  of 
brightening  iron  i-ecommended  by  Boden.  The  articles  to 
be  brightened  are,  when  taken  from  the  forge  or  the  rolls,  in 
the  case  of  such  articles  as  j^lates,  wire,  etc.,  placed  in  dilute 
sulphuric  acid  (1  to  20),  cleansing  the  articles,  which  are 
then  washed  clean  with  water  and  dried  with  sawdust.  They 
are  then  dipped  for  a  second  or  so  in  nitrous  acid,  washed 
carefully,  dried  in  sawdust  and  rubbed  clean.  It  is  said  that 
iron  goods  thiis  treated  acquire  a  bright  siirface,  having  a 
white  glance,  without  undergoing  any  of  the  usual  polishing 
operations.  This  is  a  process  that  those  interested  can  easily 
test  for  themselves.  Boden  states  that  the  action  of  the  sul- 
phuric acid  is  increased  by  the  addition  of  a  little  carbolic 
acid,  but  it  is  difficult  to  see  what  effect  this  can  have,  and  it 
may  very  well  be  dispensed  with. 

To  Remove  the  Blue  Color  Impmied  to  Iron  and  Steel  bi/  ex- 
posure to  Heat. — Rub  lightly  with  a  sponge  or  rag  dipped  in 
diluted  sulphuric,  nitric,  or  hydrochloric  acid.  A\lien  the 
discoloration  is  removed,  carefiiUy  wash  the  article,  dry  it 
by  rubbing,  warm  it  and  give  a  coat  of  oil  or  it  Avill  raj^idly 
rust. 

Ivory. 

Ivory  is  obtained  from  the  tusk  of  the  elephant,  and 
although  material  nearly  resembling  it  may  be  obtained  from 
other  animals,  yet  the  true  ivory  stands  unequalled  as  a  ma- 
terial for  ornamental  turning  and  carving.  It  is  not  so  brittle 
as  bone,  neither  does  it  splinter  so  much  when  broken,  and 
as  it  is  entirely  free  from  the  vessels  or  pores  which  jiermeate 
all  bone,  the  finished  articles  have  a  much  more  solid  and 
even  ajapearance.  Although  distinctly  fibrous  it  cannot  be 
torn  up  in  filaments  like  bone  or  divided  into  thin  leaves. 


THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION.  77 

sxcept  by  the  saw.  It  is  in  all  respects  the  most  suitable 
material  for  ornamental  turning,  as  it  is  capable  of  receiving 
the  most  delicate  lines  and  of  being  cut  in  the  most  slender 
proportions.  But  while  it  is  thus  valuable  as  a  material  for 
ornamental  work,  it  is  useless  for  any  article  requiring  ac- 
curacy in  its  dimensions — such  for  example  as  the  scales  of 
di'aughtsmen  and  the  graduated  arcs  of  instruments  for  mea- 
guring  angles.  Owing  to  the  great  alterations  which  it  sus- 
tains under  slight  atmospheric  changes  it  cannot  be  relied 
upon,  and  has  been  condemned  officially  by  the  survey  com- 
missioners of  almost  all  countries. 

It  is  imagined  by  some  that  ivory  may  be  softened  so  as  to 
admit  of  beiag  moulded  like  horn  or  tortoise  shell.  Its 
different  analysis  contradicts  this  expectation  ;  thick  pieces 
suffer  no  change  in  boiling  water,  thin  pieces  become  a  little 
more  flexible,  and  thin  shavings  give  oif  their  jelly,  which  sub- 
stance is  occasionally  prepared  from  them.  It  is  true  that  the 
caustic  alkali  will  act  ujion  ivory  as  well  as  upon  most  animal 
substances,  yet  it  only  does  so  by  decomposing  it.  Ivory, 
when  exposed  to  the  alkalies,  first  becomes  unckioiis  or  sapo- 
naceous on  its  outer  surface,  then  soft,  if  in  thin  plates,  and 
it  may  be  ultimately  dissolved  provided  the  alkali  be  concen- 
trated ;  but  it  does  not  in  any  such  case  resume  its  first  con- 
dition. 

Working  and  Polishing  Ivmy. — As  a  material  to  be  worked 
oy  the  mechanic,  ivory  stands  midway  between  wood  and 
brass,  and  is  turned  and  cut  by  tools  having  more  obtuse 
angles  than  those  employed  for  Avood,  and  yet  sharper  than 
those  used  for  brass.  It'may  be  driven  at  a  fair  speed  in  the 
lathe,  and  is  easily  sawed  by  any  saw  having  fine  teeth. 

The  tools  used  for  cutting  and  turning  ivory  should  have 
their  edges  very  finely  finished  op  an  oil  stone  so  that  they 
may  cut  smoothly  and  cleanly. 

Turned  works  "with  plain  surfaces  may  in  general  be  ler+  so 
smooth  from  the  tool  as  to  require  but  vei-i/  little  polishing,  a 
point  always  aimed  at  with  superior  workmen  by  the  employ- 
ment of  sharp  tools.  In  the  polishing  of  turned  works  very 
fine  glass  paper  or  emery  paper  is  first  used,  and  it  is  rendered 
still  finer  and  smoother  by  rubbing  two  pieces  together  face 
to  face  ;  secondly,  whiting  and  water  as  thick  as  cream  is 
then  applied  on  wash  leather,  linen,  or  cotton  rag,  whicli 
should  be  thin  that  the  fingers  may  the  more  readily  feel  and 


78  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

avoid  the  keen  fillets  and  edges  of  the  ivoiy  -work,  that  would 
be  rounded  by  excessive  polishing  ;  thirdly,  the  work  is 
washed  with  clean  water,  apjalied  by  the  same  or  another 
rag  ;  foni-thly,  it  is  rubbed  with  a  clean,  dry  cloth  until  all 
the  moisture  is  absorbed,  and,  lastly,  a  very  minute  quantity 
of  oil  or  tallow  is  put  on  the  rag  to  give  a  gloss. 

Scarcely  any  of  the  oil  remains  behind,  and  the  apprehen- 
sion of  its  being  absorbed  by  the  ivory  and  disposing  it  to 
tixrn  yellow  may  be  discarded  ;  indeed  the  quantity  of  oil 
used  IS  quite  insignificant,  and  its  main  purpose  is  to  keep 
the  surface  of  the  ivory  slightly  lubricated,  so  that  the  rag 
may  not  hang  to  it  and  Avear  it  into  rings  or  groovy  marks. 
Putty  jiowder  is  sometimes  used  for  polishing  ivory  work, 
but  it  is  more  expensive  and  scarcely  better  suited  than 
whiting,  which  is  sufficiently  hard  for  the  purpose. 

The  polishing  of  irregular  surfaces  is  generally  done  with 
a  moderately  hard  nail  brush,  supi^lied  with  whiting  and 
water,  and  lightly  applied  in  all  directions,  to  penetrate  every 
interstice  ;  after  a  period  the  work  is  brushed  with  plain 
water  and  a  clean  brush,  to  remove  every  vestige  of  the 
whiting.  The  ivory  is  dried  .  -y  wiping  and  pressing  it  with 
a  clean  linen  or  cotton  rag,  aiid  is  afterwards  allowed  to  dry 
in  the  air,  or  at  a  good  distance  from  the  fire  ;  when  dry  a 
gloss  is  given  with  a  clean  brush  on  which  a  minute  drojj  of 
oil  is  first  applied. 

It  is  better  to  do  too  ^'H^e'  polishing  at  first,  so  as  to  need 
a  repetition  of  the  proce.--  outlier  than  by  injudicious  activity 
to  round  and  obliterate  all  the  delicate  points  and  edges  of 
the  works,  upon  the  preservation  of  which  their  beauty 
mainly  depends. 

Bleaching  and  Cleaning  Ivory. — In  reply  to  the  question. 
What  means  there  are  of  bleaching  ivory  which  has  become 
discolored  ?  Holtzapffel,  the  great  authority  on  such  subjects, 
tells  us  that  he  regrets  to  be  obliged  to  say  that  he  is  unac- 
quainted with  any  of  value.  It  is  recommended  in  various 
popular  works  to  scrub  the  ivory  with  Trent  sand  and  water, 
and  similar  gritty  materials  ;  but  these  would  only  produce 
a  sensible  effect  by  the  removal  of  the  external  surface  of  the 
material,  which  would  be  fatal  to  objects  delicately  carved  by 
hand  or  with  revolving  cutting  instruments  applied  to  the 
lathe. 

It  is  a  wdl  known  fact  that  ivory  suffers  the  leaat  change 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  79 

of  color  when  it  is  exposed  to  the  light  and  closely  covered 
with  a  glass  shade.  It  assumes  its  most  nearly  white  condi- 
tion when  the  oil  with  which  it  is  naturally  combined  is  re- 
cently evaporated  ;  and  it  is  the  custom  in  some  thin  works, 
such  as  the  keys  of  pianofortes,  to  hasten  this  period,  by 
placing  tliem  for  a  few  hours  in  an  oven  heated  in  a  very 
moderate  degree,  although  the  more  immediate  object  is  to 
cause  the  pieces  to  shrink  before  they  are  glued  upon  the 
wooden  bodies  of  the  keys.  Some  i^ersons  boil  the  transpa- 
rent ivory  in  pearl-ash  and  water  to  whiten  it ;  this  appears 
to  act  by  the  superficial  extraction  of  the  oily  matter  as  in 
bone,  although  it  is  very  much  better  not  to  resort  to  the 
practice,  which  is  principally  employed  to  render  that  ivory 
which  is  partly  opaque  and  partly  transi^arent,  of  more  nearly 
uniform  appearance.  It  is  more  than  probable,  however, 
that  the  discoloration  of  ivory  is  due  to  the  oil  which  it  con- 
tains or  has  absorbed,  and  which  becomes  yeUow  and  rancid, 
and  every  effort  should  be  made  to  prevent  oily  or  greasy 
bodies  fi-om  coming  in  contact  with  ivory.  Thus  the  keys 
of  a  pianoforte  should  be  kejit  clean  by  carefully  washing 
fi'om  the  lingers  the  natural  grease  which  all  skin  gives  out. 
When  ivory  keys  become  very  yellow  they  maj  be  consider- 
ably whitened  by  allowing  a  paste  of  whiting,  slightly 
moistened  with  potash,  to  lie  on  them  for  twenty-four  hours. 
The  potash  extracts  the  oil  which  is  absorbed  by  the  chalk 
and  may  be  thus  removed. 

It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  most  oils  and  resins  may  be 
bleached  by  exposure  to  sunlight.  It  is  by  this  means  that 
opticians  render  Canada  balsam  clear  and  transparent.  It 
has  been  found  that  joieces  of  apparatus  made  of  ivory,  such 
as  rules,  etc.,  which  have  become  yellow  by  age,  may  be 
bleached  by  dipping  them  in  turpentine  and  exposing  them 
to  sunlight. 

The  fumes  of  sulphur,  chloride  of  lime,  etc.,  though  fre- 
tjuently  recommended,  are  of  no  value  as  bleachers  of  ivory. 

Javelle  Water. 

This  name  was  derived  from  the  town  of  Javelle,  in  France, 
where  a  manufactory  sold  a  liquor  which  had  the  property 
of  bleaching  cloth  by  an  immersion  of  some  hours  only.  Tha 
following  is  the  original  recipe  given  by  Gray  in  his  "  Oper- 
Itive  Chemist":    2i  lbs.  common  salt,  2  lbs  of  sulphurio 


80  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

acid,  and  i  lb.  of  black  manganese  are  mixed  in  a  retort  and 
heated,  and  the  gas  which  comes  over  is  condensed  in  2 
gallons  of  water  in  which  5  lbs.  of  potash  have  been  dissolved. 
This  liquor  is  diluted  with  twelve  times  its  bulk  of  water. 

This  process  is  available  only  by  chemists,  however.  The 
following  gives  good  results  :  Take  4  lbs.  carbonate  of  soda, 
and  1  lb.  chloride  of  lime  ;  in\t  the  soda  into  a  kettle,  add  1 
gallon  of  boiling  water  and  boil  for  from  10  to  15  miniates  ; 
then  stir  in  the  chloride  of  lime,  breaking  down  all  lumi^s 
with  a  wooden  siDatula  or  stirrer.  Pour  into  large  glass 
bottles  ;  when  cold  and  settled  it  will  be  ready  for  use. 

This  forms  a  very  efficient  bleaching  liquid  and  one  which 
it  is  not  difficult  to  remove  from  the  bleached  fabric.  Old 
and  stained  engravings  and  books,  as  well  as  linen  and  cotton 
goods  that  have  become  yellow  with  dirt  and  age,  may  be 
rendered  snowy  white  by  the  a^jplication  of  this  liquid 

Jewelry  and  Gilded  Ware. 

Ordinary  gold  jewelry  may  be  eflfectually  cleansed  by  wash- 
ing with  soap  and  warm  water,  rinsing  in  cold  water  and 
drying  in  warm  boxwood  sawdust.  Plain,  smooth  surfaces 
may  be  rubbed  with  chamois  leather  charged  either  with 
rouge  or  jji-epared  chalk,  but  the  less  rubbing  the  better. 

Silver  is  liable  to  tarnish  by  the  action  of  sulphur,  and 
where  there  is  fine  chased  or  engraved  work  the  extreme 
delicacy  of  the  lines  may  be  injiired  by  miicli  rubbing.  In 
such  cases  the  articles  may  be  cleaned  by  washing  with  a 
solution  of  hyijosiilphite  of  soda.  Cyanide  of  potassium  is 
a  more  powerful  cleansing  agent  but  is  very  poisonous. 

In  cleaning  gilded  ware,  different  processes  must  be 
used  for  articles  gilded  by  fire  or  by  the  galvanic  process, 
and  articles  gilded  by  gold  leaf,  such  as  frames,  etc.  For 
cleaning  articles  gilded  by  the  first-named  methods,  one  part 
cf  borax  is  dissolved  in  sixteen  parts  of  water.  With  this 
solution  the  article  is  carefully  rubbed  by  means  of  a  soft 
s])onge  or  In'ush,  then  rinsed  with  water,  and  finally  dried 
with  a  linen  rag,  or  if  small,  such  as  a  piece  of  jewelry,  with 
boxwood  sawdust.  If  at  all  convenient,  the  article  is  wai-med 
previoiTsly  to  being  rubbed,  by  which  means  the  brilliuney 
of  it  is  greatly  increased.  In  cleaning  gilded  frames  of  the 
last  named  order,  pure  water  only  must  be  employed,  and  the 
rubbing  off  of  the  impurities  must  take  place  by  means  of  a 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION..  W 

very  slight  pre-rsiire.  Wares  of  imitation  gilt  are  generally 
covered  with  z  shellac  or  resin  varnish,  which  would  be  dis- 
solved by  the  application  of  soap  water,  alkaline  solutions, 
or  spirits  of  wine.  Were  the  varnish  rubbed  off,  the  exceed- 
ingly thin  layer  of  gold  or  silver  leaf  beneath  would  also 
disappear.  la  our  experience  we  have  seen  hundreds  of  once 
valuable  but  now  worthless  frames,  they  having  become  thus 
simply  by  the  application  of  soap  water. 

Lacquer. 

Lacquer  is  so  called  because  it  usually  contains  gum  lac, 
either  shellac  or  seed  lac.  Seed  lac  is  the  original  form  of 
the  gum  or  resin  ;  after  being  purified  it  is  moulded  into  thin 
sheets,  like  shell,  and  hence  is  called  shellac.  Shellac  is 
frequently  bleached  so  as  to  become  quite  white,  in  which 
state  it  forms  a  colorless  solution.  Bleached  shellac  is  never 
as  strong  as  the  gum  in  its  natural  condition,  and  unless  it 
be  fresh  it  neither  dissolves  well  in  alcohol  nor  does  it 
preserve  any  metal  to  which  it  may  be  applied. 

There  are  many  recipes  for  good  lacquer,  but  the  success 
of  the  operator  depends  quite  as  much  upon  skill  as  upon 
the  particular  recipe  employed.  The  metal  must  be  cleaned 
perfectly  from  grease  and  dirt,  and  in  lacquering  new  work 
it  is  always  best  to  lacquer  as  soon  after  polishing  as  possible. 
Old  lacquer  may  be  removed  with  a  strong  lye  of  potash  or 
soda,  after  which  the  work  should  be  well  washed  in  water, 
dried  in  fine  beech  or  boxwood  sawdust  and  polished  with 
whiting,  applied  with  a  soft  brush.  The  condition  of  the 
work,  as  to  cleanliness  and  polish,  is  perhaps  the  most  im- 
portant i^oint  in  lacquering. 

The  metal  should  be  heated  and  the  lacquer  applied  evenly 
with  a  soft  camel  hair  brush.  A  temperature  of  about  that 
of  boiling  water  will  be  found  right. 

The  solution  of  lac  or  varnish  is  colored  to  suit  the  require- 
ments or  taste  of  the  user. 

A  good  i^ale  lacquer  consists  of  three  parts  of  Cape  aloes 
and  one  of  turmeric  to  one  of  simple  lac  varnish.  A  full 
yellow  contains  four  of  turmeric  and  one  of  annatto  to  one  of 
lac  varnish.  A  gold  lacquer,  four  of  dragon's-blood  and  one 
of  turmeric  to  one  of  lac  varnish.  A  red,  thirty -two  parts  of 
annatto  and  eight  of  dragon's-blood  to  one  of  lac  varnish. 

A  great  deal  depends,  also,  upon  the  depth  of  color  im- 


82  THE  WORKSHOP  C!OMPANION. 

parted  to  the  lacquer,  and  as  this  may  require  to  be  varied, 
a  very  good  plan  is  to  make  up  a  small  stock  bottle,  holding, 
say,  half  a  pint,  according  to  any  good  recii)e,  and  add  as 
much  of  it  to  the  varnish  as  may  be  required  for  the  desired 
tint. 

The  following  are  a  few  favorite  recipes  : 

Deej)  Gold  Lacquer. — Alcohol,  J  pint ;  dragon's-blood,  1 
drachm  ;  seed  lac,  1^  oz. ;  turmeric,  I  oz.  Shake  up  well  for 
a  week,  at  intervals  of,  say,  a  couple  of  hours  ;  then  allow  to 
settle,  and  decant  the  clear  lacquer  ;  and  if  at  all  dirty  filter 
through  a  tuft  of  cotton  wool.  This  lacquer  may  be  diluted 
with  a  simple  solution  of  shellac  in  alcohol  and  will  then  give 
a  paler  tint. 

Bright  Gold  Lacquer. — 1.  Turmeric,  1  oz. ;  saffi'on  J  oz. ; 
Spanish  annatto,  i  oz. ;  alcohol,  1  pint.  Digest  at  a  gentle 
heat  for  several  days  ;  strain  througli  coarse  linen  ;  put  the 
tincture  in  a  bottle  and  add  3  oz.  good  seed  lac  coarsely 
l^owdered.  Let  it  stand  for  several  days,  shaking  occasion- 
ally.    Allow  to  settle  and  use  the  clear  liquid. 

2.  Take  1  oz.  annatto  and  8  oz.  alcohol.  INIix  in  a  bottle 
by  themselves.  Also  mix  separately  1  oz.  gamboge  and  8  oz. 
alcohol.  With  these  mixtures  color  seed  lac  varnish  to  suit 
yourself.  If  it  be  too  red  add  gamboge  ;  if  too  yellow  add 
annatto  ;  if  the  color  be  too  deep,  add  spirit.  In  this  manner 
you  may  color  brass  of  any  desired  tint. 

Pale  Gold  Lacquer. — Best  i^ale  shellac  (picked  pieces),  8  oz. ; 
sandarac,  2  oz. ;  turmeric,  8  oz. ;  annatto,  2  oz. ;  dragon's-blood, 
i  oz. ;  alcohol,  1  gallon.  Mix,  shake  frequently  till  the  gums 
are  dissolved  and  the  color  extracted  from  the  coloring 
matters  and  then  allow  to  settle. 

Lacquer  used  by  A.  Ross. — 4  oz.  shellac  and  i  oz.  gamboge 
are  dissolved  by  agitation,  without  heat,  in  24  oz.  piire  pyro- 
acetic  ether.  The  solution  is  allowed  to  stand  until  the 
gummy  matters,  not  taken  up  by  the  sj^irit,  subside.  The 
clear  liquor  is  then  decanted,  and  when  required  for  use  is 
mixed  with  8  times  its  quantity  of  alcohol.  In  this  case  the 
pyro-acetic  ether  is  employed  for  dissolving  the  shellac  in 
order  to  prevent  any  but  the  i^urely  resinous  portions  being 
taken  up,  which  is  almost  cei'tain  to  occur  with  ordinary 
alcohol ;  but  if  the  lacquer  were  made  entirely  with  pyro- 
acetic  ether,  the  latter  would  evaporate  too  rapidly  to  allow 
time  for  the  lacquer  to  be  equally  applied. 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  88 

Lacquers  suflfer  a  chemical  change  by  heat  and  light,  and 
must,  therefore,  be  kept  in  a  cool  iilace  and  in  dark  vessels. 
The  pans  used  should  be  either  of  glass  or  earthenware,  and 
the  brushes  cf  camel's  hair  with  no  metal  fittings. 

Laundry  Gloss. 

Various  recipes  have  been  given  for  imparting  a  fine  gloss 
to  linen.  Gum  arable,  white  wax,  spermaceti,  etc.,  have  all 
been  highly  recommended,  and  are,  no  doubt,  useful  to  a 
cei-tain  extent,  but  the  great  secret  seems  to  lie  in  the  quality 
of  the  iron  used  and  the  skill  of  the  laundress.  If  the  iron  is 
hard,  close  gi-ained  and  finely  polished,  the  work  will  be 
much  easier.  Laundresses  always  have  a  favorite  smoothing 
iron  with  which  they  do  most  of  their  Avork,  and  many  of 
them  have  the  front  edge  of  the  iron  rounded  so  tha,t  great 
pressure  can  be  brought  to  bear  on  a  very  small  spot  instead 
of  being  spread  over  a  space  the  size  of  the  whole  face  of  the 
iron.  If  smoothing  irons  have  become  rough  and  rusty  it 
will  pay  to  send  them  to  a  grinder  to  have  them  not  only 
ground  but  buffed  (see  aritcle  on  Polishing  Metals).  The 
greatest  care  should  be  taken  not  to  allow  them  to  get  spotted 
with  rust,  and  they  should  never  be  "brightened"  with 
coarse  sand,  ashes,  emery,  etc.  If  it  is  necessary  to  polish 
them,  rub  them  on  a  board,  or  jjreferably  a  piece  of  leatlier 
charged  with  the  finest  flour  of  emery,  obtained  by  washing, 
or  better  still,  jeweller's  rouge. 

Leaves— Skeleton. 

The  following  is  a  simple  method  of  preparing  skeleton 
leaves,  and  is  decidedly  preferable  to  the  old  and  tedious 
method  of  maceration,  as  it  is  quite  as  efficient  and  not  at  all 
offensive.  First  dissolve  four  ounces  of  common  washing 
soda  in  a  quart  of  boiling  water,  then  add  two  ounces  of 
slaked  quicklime  and  boil  for  about  fifteen  miniites.  Allow 
the  solution  to  cool :  afterwards  pour  oif  all  the  clear  liquor- 
into  a  clean  saucepan.  Wlien  this  liquor  is  at  its  boiling 
beat  place  the  leaves  carefully  in  the  pan,  and  boil  the  whole 
together  for  an  hour,  adding  from  time  to  time  enough  water 
to  make  up  for  the  loss  by  evaporation.  The  epidermis  and 
parenchyma  of  some  leaves  will  more  readily  separate  than 
others.  A  good  test  is  to  try  the  leaves  after  they  have  been 
gently  boiling  for  an  hour,  and  if  the  cellular  matter  does  not 
easily  rub  off  betwixt  the  finger  and  thumb  beneath  cold 


84  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

water,  hoil  tliem  again  for  a  sliorf  time.  When  the  fleshy 
matter  is  found  to  be  sufficiently  softened,  rub  them  sepa- 
rately but  very  gently  beneath  cold  water  until  the  perfect 
skeleton  is  exposed. 

The  skeletons,  at  first,  are  of  a  dirty  white  color  ;  to  make 
them  of  a  pure  white,  and  therefore  more  beautiful,  all  that 
is  necessary  is  to  bleach  them  in  a  weak  solution  of  chloride 
of  lime — a  large  teaspoonful  of  chloride  of  lime  to  a  quart  of 
water  ;  if  a  few  drops  of  vinegar  are  added  to  the  solution  it 
is  all  the  better,  for  then  the  free  chlorine  is  liberated.  Do 
not  allow  them  to  remain  too  long  in  the  bleaching  liquor, 
or  they  will  become  too  brittle,  and  cannot  afterwards  be 
handled  without  injury.  About  fifteen  minutes  will  be  suf- 
ficient to  make  them  white  and  clean  looking.  Dry  the  speci- 
mens in  white  blotting  paper,  beneath  a  gentle  pressure. 
Simple  leaves  are  the  best  for  young  beginners  to  experiment 
on  ;  the  vine,  pojilar,  beach  and  ivy  leaves  make  excellent 
skeletons.  Care  must  be  exercised  in  the  selection  of  leaves, 
as  well  as  the  period  of  the  year  and  the  state  of  the  atmo- 
sj^here  when  the  specimens  are  collected  ;  otherwise,  failure 
will  be  the  result.  The  best  months  to  gather  the  specimens 
are  July  and  August.  Never  collect  specimens  in  damp 
weather,  and  none  but  perfectly  matured  leaves  ought  to  be 
selected. 

Lights— Signal  and  Colored. 

The  following  recipes  are  from  the  United  States  Ordnance 
Manual,  and  may  be  considered  reliable.  The  composition 
for  signal  lights  is  j)acked  in  shallow  vessels  of  large  diame- 
ter so  as  to  exjiose  considerable  surface.  Where  the  biirning 
surface  is  large,  the  light  attains  great  intensity,  but  the  ma- 
terial burns  out  rajiidly.  In  arranging  the  size  and  shape  of 
the  case,  therefore,  regard  must  be  had  to  the  time  the  light 
is  expected  to  burn  and  the  brilliancy  that  is  wanted.  [See 
ccmtion  at  end  of  this  article.^ 

Bengal  Light. — ^ Antimony,  2  ;  sulphur,  4  ;  mealed  j)owder, 
4: ;  nitrate  of  soda,  16. 

Blue. — Black  sulphuret  of  antimony,  1 ;  sulphur,  2  ;  pure 
nitre,  6.  Grind  to  a  very  fine  powder  and  mix  thoroughly. 
See  that  the  nitre  is  perfectly  dry.  This  composition  gives 
a  bluish  white  light ;  a  deeper  blue  may  be  had  by  the  addi- 
tion of  a  little  finely  pulverized  zinc. 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  86 

Red. — 1.  Saltpetre,  5  ;  sulphur,  6  ;  nitrate  of  strontia,  20; 
lampblack,  1. 

2.  Nitrate  of  strontia,  20  ;  chlorate  of  potassa,  8  ;  Sulphur, 
G  ;  charcoal,  1. 

White. — Saltpetre,  16 ;  sulphur,  8  ;  mealed  powder,  4. 
Grind  to  a  very  fine  jDowder  and  mix  well. 

The  following  have  been  very  highly  recommended  : 

Crimson  Fire. — Sulphide  of  antimony,  4  ;  chlorate  of  po- 
tassa, 5  ;  powdered  roll  brimstone,  13  ;  dry  nitrate  of  strontia, 
iO  parts. 

A  very  little  charcoal  added  to  the  above  makes  it  bum 
quicker. 

Green  Fire. — Fine  charcoal,  3  ;  sulphur,  13 ;  chlorate  of 
potassa,  8  ;  nitrate  of  baiyta,  77. 

White. — ^1.  Nitrate  of  potassa  (saltpetre),  24 ;  sulphur  7  ; 
charcoal,  1. 

2.  Nitre,  6 ;  sulphur,  2  ;  yellow  sulphuret  of  arsenic,  1. 
[Note. — This  light  is  a  veiy  brilliant  one  and  a  very  pure 
white,  but  the  fumes  are  highly  poisonous.  It  should  be 
used  only  in  the  open  air  and  the  wind  should  blow  the 
vapors  away  from  the  spectators — not  towards  them.] 

3.  Chlorate  of  potash,  10  ;  nitre,  5  ;  lycopodium,  3  ;  char- 
coal 2. 

4.  Metallic  magnesium  in  the  form  of  ribbon  or  wire.  This 
is  the  best  and  most  easily  used.  It  may  be  purchased  of 
most  dealers  in  chemicals.  A  few  inches  of  magnesium  rib- 
bon coiled  into  a  spiral  (like  a  spiral  spring)  and  ignited  by 
means  of  a  spirit  lamp,  or  even  by  a  little  tuft  of  cotton 
soaked  in  alcohol  and  fired  with  a  lucifer  match,  makes  a 
light  of  siTrpassiug  brilliancy  and  power.  It  requires  a  slight 
knack  to  ignite  the  ribbon.  Hold  the  end  of  it  steadily  in 
the  oute?-  edge  of  the  flame  and  it  will  soon  take  fii'e.  The 
light  given  out  by  a  small  ribbon  of  magnesium  is  clearly 
visible  at  a  distance  of  thirty  miles. 

Lights  for  Indoor  Illuinimitions. — Many  of  the  above  are 
unfit  for  indoor  exhibitions  owing  to  the  amount  of  sul- 
phurous gas  given  oflf.  For  tableaux  in  churches,  schools 
and  2>rivate  houses,  the  best  light  is  undoubtedly  magnesium 
or,  where  it  can  be  had,  the  lime  light  (sometimes,  though 
erroneously,  called  the  calcium  light).  Both  of  these  lights 
are  very  powerful,  and  any  color  may  be  obtained  by  the 
use  of  pieces  of  differently  colored  glass.     A  very  effective 


86  -  ^  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION 

arrangement  consists  of  a  tin  box,  which  may  be  made  out 
of  one  of  those  cases  in  which  crackers  are  imported.  Pro 
cure  good-sized  pieces  of  red  and  blue  glass,  the  red  being  a 
soft,  warm  tint,  such  as  will  add  a  richness  to  the  complex- 
ions of  those  upon  whom  the  light  is  thrown.  Arrange  one 
end  of  the  tin  box  so  that  these  glasses  may  be  slipped  over 
a  large  hole  in  it.  The  opposite  end  of  the  box  should  be 
highly  polished  so  as  to  act  as  a  reflector,  and  a  hole  should 
be  cut  in  one  side  so  as  to  allow  of  the  introduction  of  the 
magnesium. 

In  every  case  the  burning  matter  should  be  so  shaded 
that  it  may  not  be  seen  by  the  audience.  If  the  direct  light 
from  the  burning  body  meets  the  eyes  of  the  spectators  the 
reflected  light  from  the  objects  comjjosing  the  tableau  will 
have  no  effect. 

Where  arrangements  for  lime  or  magnesium  lights  cannot 
be  made,  the  following  may  be  used. 

White. — Chlorate  of  potash,  12  ;  nitre,  5  ;  finely  powdered 
loaf  sugar,  4  ;  lycopodium  2. 

Oi-een. — Nitrate  of  baryta,  shellac  and  chlorate  of  potassa, 
all  finely  powdered,  equal  parts  by  bulk. 

Bed. — Nitrate  of  strontia,  shellac  and  chlorate  of  potassa, 
all  finely  powdered,  equal  parts  by  bulk. 

The  brilliancy  of  these  fires  will  depend  largely  upon  the 
thoroughness  with  which  the  materials  are  finely  powdered 
and  mixed.      [See  caidion  at  end  of  this  article.'^ 

Braunschweizer  recommends  the  followmg  formulse  as 
giving  excellent  results,  the  lights  being  good  without  pro- 
ducing injurious  fiimes  : 

Bed. — Nitrate  of  strontia,  9  ;  shellac,  3 ;  chlorate  of  pot- 
assa, 1^. 

6ree7i. — Nitrate  of  baryta,  9  ;  shellac,  3  ;  chlorate  of  pot- 
assa, Ij. 

Blue. — Ammoniacal  sulphate  of  copper,  8;  chlorate  of 
potassa,  6;  shellac,  1. 

The  Pharmacist  gives  the  following  formula  for  "  Ked 
Fire,"  which  will  not  evolve  sulphurous  acid  diiring  com- 
biistion  :  nitrate  of  strontia,  1  lb. ;  chlorate  of  potassa,  i  lb. ; 
shellac,  \  lb. 

These  ingi-edieuuS  must  be  thoroughly  dried,  powdered 
separately,  and  carefully  mixed  by  gentle  stirring. 

Ghosts,  Demons,  Spectres  and  Murderers. — To  give  a  ghastly 


THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION.  87 

hue  to  the  faces  of  tlie  actors,  the  best  light  is  that  produced 
by  some  salt  of  soda,  common  salt  being  very  good.  We 
have  succeeded  well  in  this  way  :  A  piece  of  wire  gauze  such 
as  ash-sifters  are  made  of,  and  about  a  foot  square,  was  sup- 
ported at  a  height  of  about  a  foot  from  the  floor,  which  was 
protected  by  a  sheet  of  iron.  On  the  wire  gauze  were  laid 
twenty-five  wads  of  cotton  Avaste  which  had  l)een  soaked  in  a 
solution  of  common  salt,  dried  and  dipped  in  alcohol  just 
before  being  laid  on  the  wire.  When  these  were  ignited  we 
had  twenty -five  powerful  flames  all  tinged  with  sodium  and 
burning  freely,  as  the  air  rose  readily  among  them  through 
the  wire  gi-ating.  Such  a  flame  produces  quite  a  powerful 
light  and  gives  a  death-like  appearance  to  even  the  most 
rosy-cheeked  girl. 

The  following  give  a  strong  light  and  jn-oduce  a  most 
ghastly  effect: 

1.  Nitrate  of  soda,  10  ;  clil orate  of  potash,  10  ;  sulphide  of 
antimony,  3  ;  shellac,  4.  The  materials  must  be  warm  and 
dry,  and  as  the  nitrate  of  soda  attracts  moi.stnre  rapidly,  it 
must  be  well  dried,  then  finely  powdered  as  quickly  as  pos- 
sible and  kept  in  well-corked  bottles.  As  this  gives  off  a 
good  deal  of  sulphurous  ftimes,  the  following  may  be  pre- 
ferretl  where  the  ventilation  is  not  good  : 

2.  Nitrate  of  soda,  10  ;  chlorate  of  potassa,  15  ;  white 
sugar  finely  powdered,  5  ;  lycoj)odium,  2. 

CAUTION. 

In  using  chlorate  of  potassa  the  greatest  care  is  necessary. 
It  may  be  powdered  and  otherwise  handled  safely  when 
alone,  but  when  combustible  matter  of  any  kind  is  added  to 
it,  the  mixture  becomes  highly  exjilosive  and  must  be  very 
gently  handled.  It  must  therefore  be  powdered  separately 
and  only  mixed  with  the  other  ingredients  after  they  have 
been  powdered.  The  mixing  should  be  done  on  a  large  sheet 
of  paper,  very  gently,  but  very  thoroughly,  with  a  thin, 
broad-bladed  knife.  > 

Mixtures  of  chlorate  of  potash  with  suli^hur,  suli^hurets, 
and  especially  phosphorous,  are  liable  to  explode  spontane- 
ously after  a  time,  and  should  never  be  kept  on  hand.  They 
phould  be  made  as  wanted. 

Flowers  of  sulphur  are  veiy  liable  to  contain  a  trace  of 
sulphuric  or  sulphurous  acid,  which,  acting  upon  chlorate  of 


88  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

potash  causes  spontaneous  ignition.  This  may  be  obviated 
by  pouring  a  few  droits  of  liquid  ammonia  on  the  sulj)hur, 
mixing  it  vip  thoroughly  and  allowing  it  to  stand  for  some 
time.  A  safe  way  also  is  to  use  powdered  roll  brimstone 
instead  of  flowers  of  sulphur. 

Phosphorous  Light. — One  of  the  most  brilliant  lights  known 
is  produced  by  burning  phosphorous  in  oxygen.  The  ajspa- 
ratus  usually  employed  for  this  purpose  is  bulky  and  expen- 
sive, but  the  following  is  a  very  simple  method  of  producing 
a  very  intense  light  by  the  combustion  of  phosphorous  : 
Take  an  amount  of  nitre  proportional  to  the  desired  intensity 
and  duration  of  the  light  required,  dry  it  thoroughly,  i^owder 
it  and  pack  it  solidly  in  an  earthen  vessel,  leaving  a  small 
cup-like  hollow  in  its  upj^er  surface.  In  this  hollow  place  a 
piece  of  phosphorous  Avhicli  has  been  carefully  dried  with 
soft  pai^er  or  rags  and  set  it  on  fire.  As  the  phosphorous 
burns,  the  nitre  melts,  decomposes  and  furnishes  it  with  i3ure 
oxygen,  and  the  resulting  light  is  verj  brilliant. 

Note. — In  handling  phosphorous  be  very  careful.  Do  not 
touch  it  with  the  hands  or  rub  it  with  the  article  used  to 
dry  it,  as  it  takes  fire  very  easily,  and  the  burns  produced  by 
it  are  very  severe.     It  should  always  be  cut  under  water. 

Photographic  Light. — A  light  of  intense  photographic 
power  is  produced  by  burning  bisulphide  of  carbon  in  an 
argand  lamp  and  passing  a  stream  of  nitric  oxide  through  the 
centre  of  the  flame  Nitric  oxide  is  easily  jiroduced  as 
"wanted  by  allowing  nitric  acid  to  act  on  scraps  of  cojiper. 

The  following  specific  dix  ^f^tions  will  enable  the  reader  to 
produce  this  light  in  a  less  simple  but  more  eflfective  manner  : 
A  quart  bottle  with  a  somewhat  large  mouth,  has  a  cork 
with  two  ojjenings.  Through  one  of  these  a  tube  passes  to 
near  the  bottom  of  the  bottle  ;  through  the  second  a  large 
tube  packed  with  iron  scale  issues.  Fragments  of  pumice 
till  the  bottle,  and  on  these  carbon  disulphide  is  poured.  A 
current  of  nitric  oxide  gas,  prepared  by  Deville's  method — 
by  the  action  of  nitric  and  suli^huric  acids  on  metallic  iron 
contained  in  a  self-regulating  reservou- — is  passed  through 
the  bottle,  where  it  takes  uj)  the  vapor  of  the  disul]3hide.  It 
is  then  led  through  the  safety-tube,  packed  with  iron-scale,  to 
a  gas  burner  of  the  required  capacity  Excellent  photo- 
graphs have  l>een  taken  in  five  seconds  Avith  this  light,  the 
object  being  six  feet  distant.     In  photographic  power  th« 


THE  WOEt  j>HOP  COMPANION.  M 

light  is  asserted  to  be  superior  to  the  magnesium  or  calcium 
light,  and  even  to  surpass  the  electric  light  itself.  The 
products  of  combustion  are  noxious  and  must  be  gotten 
rid  of. 

Chatham  Light. — This  is  a  most  intense  flash-light  used  for 
military  signals.  Three  parts  finely  powdered  resin  are 
mixed  with  one  part  magnesium  dust,  and  bloAvn  by  means 
of  a  tube  through  the  flame  of  a  spirit  lamp.  The  flame  should 
be  large  so  as  to  insure  the  ignition  of  all  the  dust.  The  dis- 
tance at  which  such  a  flame  can  be  seen  is  extraordinary. 

Home  years  ago  the  author  devised  a  method  of  producing  a 
light  of  marvellous  brilliancy  by  the  use  of  magnesium 
powder.  A  rude  argand  spirit  lamp  was  constructed  in  stich 
a  way  that  the  central  tube  could  be  connected  in  an  air-tight 
fashion  with  a  reservoir  of  oxygen.  A  small  stopcock,  with 
the  hole  of  the  pliig  closed  at  one  side  so  as  to  leave  a  c^'p 
instead  of  a  hole,  was  fitted  into  the  tube  leading  from  the 
oxygen  reservoir  to  the  lamp.  T\^en  turned  upward  this 
Clip  was  easily  filled  with  magnesium  powder,  and  when 
turned  down  it  of  course  dropped  its  charge  into  the  stream 
of  oxygen,  which  carried  it  at  once  to  the  lamp,  there  to  be 
consumed  vl  a  flash  of  extraordinary  brilUancy. 

Looking  Glass.     {SeeMm-ors.) 

Lubricators. 

In  selecting  a  lubricator  for  any  rubbing  surfaces,  care  must 
be  taken  to  adapt  the  character  of  the  lubricating  material  to 
the  nature  of  the  rubbing  surfaces  and  the  weight  which  they 
have  to  sustain.  A  tine,  thin  oil  is  useless  for  heavy  bearings, 
and  a  hard,  stiff"  soajj,  which  would  be  excellent  for  such 
bearings,  would  be  a  poor  article  for  a  very  light  piece  of 
machinery.  In  the  case  of  heavy  bearings,  such  as  railway 
4xles,  when  they  once  begin  to  heat  and  cut,  it  will  be  found 
impossible  to  prevent  heating  by  the  mere  application  of  oil. 
The  surfaces  of  the  metal  must  be  worked  over  either  by 
grinding  or  the  turning  tool.  Thus,  when  journals  heat  at 
sea,  the  usual  custom  is  to  iise  sulphvir,  black-lead,  or  water  ; 
1:)ut  the  relief  they  aff'ord  is  only  temporaiy.  The  following 
is  a  method  that  gives  permanent  relief  :  When  you  And  the 
journals  getting  hot,  slack  back  the  nuts  on  the  cap  from 
one-quarter  to  one-third  of  a  turn,  and  supply  the  jouinal 


90  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

freely  with  dust  procured  by  rubbing  tAVO  Bath  bricks  to- 
gether, mixed  in  oil  to  a  consistency  a  little  thinner  than 
cream.  After  a  short  time  begin  cautiously  to  set  up  on  the 
nuts  ;  and  before  finally  bringing  the  nuts  to  their  original 
position,  give  a  copious  supply  of  oil  alone  to  wash  out  the 
journal ;  then  bring  the  nuts  into  jDosition,  and  you  will  have 
no  further  trouble.  This  plan  has  also  been  tried  on  railway 
journals,  and  it  has  been  foiind  that  a  handful  of  clay  or 
gravel  has  effected  that  which  gallons  of  oil  and  water  could 
not  do. 

In  addition  to  the  usual  oils  and  grease  the  following  hi- 
bricators  deserve  attention  : 

1.  Plumbago. — This  material  i&  gradually  coming  into  use, 
and  when  i^roiJerly  selected  and  applied  it  never  fails  to  give 
satisfactory  results.  It  may  be  used  on  the  heaviest  ijlaners 
and  ocean  steamers,  or  on  the  lightest  watchwork.  When 
ajiplied  to  delicate  machinery  the  surfaces  should  be  very 
lightly  coated  with  the  plumbago  by  means  of  a  brush.  In 
this  way  all  danger  of  grit  is  avoided.  Plumbago  seems  to 
be  specially  adapted  to  diminish  the  friction  between  porous 
surfaces,  such  as  wood  and  cast  iron.  Por  the  cast  iron  beds 
of  heavy  planers  it  is  a  specific. 

2.  Anti-Attrition. — Mix  4  lbs.  tallow  or  soap  with  1  lb. 
finely  ground  plumbago.  The  best  lubricator  for  wood 
working  on  wood.  Excellent  for  wooden  screws  where  great 
power  is  required. 

3.  Fine  Lubricating  Oil. — Put  fine  olive  oil  in  a  bottle  with 
scrapings  of  lead  and  expose  it  to  the  sun  for  a  few  weeks. 
Poiir  off  the  clear  oil  for  use.  Another  method  is  to  freeze 
fine  olive  oil,  strain  out  the  liquid  i^ortiou  and  preserve  for  use. 

Booth's  Axle  Orease. — Dissolve  \  lb.  Avashing  soda  in  1 
gallon  water  and  add  3  lbs.  tallow  and  6  lbs.  palm  oil.  Heat 
to  210°  Fahr.,  and  keep  constantly  stirring  until  cooled 
to  60°  or  70°. 

Marble. 

Marble  is  a  compact  carbonate  of  lime  which  varies  in  color, 
some  specimens  being  pure  white,  others  perfectly  black, 
while  others  are  green,  red,  veined,  mottled,  etc.  The  famous 
Mexican  onyx,  so-called,  is  also  a  carbonate  of  lime,  and  not- 
Avithstanding  its  hardness  and  beauty  is  liable  to  injury  from 
the  same  causes  that  affect  ordinary  marble. 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  91 

Marble  is  easily  dissolved,  with  escape  of  carbonic  acid 
gas,  by  the  mineral  acids,  sulphuric,  nitric,  hydrochloric, 
etc.,  and  it  is  also  acted  upon,  though  more  slowly  by  vinegar, 
the  acids  of  fruit,  etc.  It  is  also  soluble  in  water  containing 
an  excess  of  carbonic  acid,  and  therefore  dissolves  rapidly  in 
the  ordinary  "soda"  water  that  is  so  generally  sold  as  a 
beverage,  for  this  fluid,  in  its  pure  state,  consists  solely  of 
water  holding  a  large  amount  of  carbonic  acid  in  solution. 
Consequently  bottles  and  glasses  of  this  liquid  should  not  be 
placed  where  there  is  any  danger  of  spilling  it  on  mantel 
pieces,  table  tops,  etc. ,  as  it  will  infallibly  destroy  the  ex- 
quisite polish  upon  which  the  beauty  of  such  articles  of 
furniture  depends. 

Finely  carved  articles  of  marble,  when  exposed  to  the  rain 
of  oiir  northern  climates,  are  apt  to  suffer  corrosion,  and  the 
delicate  tracery  of  the  sculptor  is  soon  lost.  Therefore, 
while  marble  answered  very  well  in  the  comparatively  dry 
climates  of  Greece  and  Egypt,  itisunsuited  for  statues,  etc., 
exposed  to  the  open  air,  in  England  and  America,  the  rainfall 
in  these  countries  being  very  great,  and  the  moisture  heavily 
charged  with  carbonic  and  suljihurous  acids. 

In  cleaning  marble  ornaments,  etc.,  great  care  must  be  ex- 
ercised to  use  nothing  corrosive  like  acids,  chlorides,  or 
metallic  salts,  such  as  are  usually  recommended  for  removing 
stains  of  inks  and  dyes  fi-om  wood  and  textile  fabrics.  Wlien 
marble  has  been  stained  by  ink  or  vegetable  coloring  matter, 
the  only  way  to  remove  it  is  to  apply  warm  water  abundantly 
and  for  a  long  time.  If  the  marble  is  very  compact,  and  the 
stain  consequently  quite  superficial,  the  article  may  be 
scraped  and  repolished,  but  of  course  this  is  applicable  only 
to  objects  which  have  plane  surfaces,  or  those  with  simple 
cui-ves.  Elaborately  carved  or  sculptured  objects  could  not 
be  so  treated. 

Greasy  stains  may  be  removed  by  covering  them  with  a 
paste  of  chalk  and  potash  or  soda.  The  alkali  will  convert 
the  grease  into  soap,  which  will  be  gradually  absorbed  by  the 
chalk  and  thus  removed.  In  such  cases,  however,  the  stains, 
especially  if  old,  may  require  a  long  time  and  several  repeti- 
tions of  the  process.  Alkalies  (potash,  soda  and  ammonia) 
may  be  applied  to  marble  without  injuring  it,  and  any  staiii:- 
which  they  can  remove  may  be  taken  out  by  their  means. 

Marble  is  easily  worked  either  on  the  bench  or  in  the  lath.. 


92  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

In  the  latter  case,  however,  great  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid 
anything  like  a  heavy  cut,  since  marble  is  so  rigid  and  brittle 
that  if  the  cut  be  heavy  the  article  is  apt  to  be  broken.  The 
only  tool  that  can  be  used  is  a  steel  point,  tempered  to  a 
straw  color.  The  tool  requires  freqiient  grinding,  and  when 
it  gets  broad  it  must  be  forged  over  again,  as  a  flat  tool  will 
not  turn  marble  at  all. 

For  working  and  finishing  marble  on  the  bench  the  follow- 
ing is  the  process  :  After  the  marble  is  sawn  into  slab,  the 
first  operation  is  to  grind  it  down  with  a  flat  coarse  sandstone 
and  water,  or  with  an  iron  plate,  fed  with  fine  sand  and  water, 
until  all  the  marks  of  the  saw  are  perfectly  removed ; 
secondly,  a  fine  sandstone  is  used  with  water  until  the 
marks  made  by  the  first  stone  are  removed;  thirdly,  a 
finer  sandstone  is  applied  to  work  out  the  marks  of  the 
former  ;  fourthly,  pumice  stone  with  water,  and  fifthly,  snake 
stone  is  used,  and  this  last  finishes  what  is  called  the 
grounding. 

Next  comes  the  i:)olishing,  which  is  principally  performed 
with  rollers  of  woolen  cloth  or  list  made  to  the  size  of  about 
three  inches  diameter.  As  the  sixth  process,  a  rubber  is 
charged  with  flour  emery  and  a  moderate  degree  of  moisture  ; 
this  rubber  is  worked  uniformly  over  every  jiart  until  the 
marble  acquires  a  kind  of  greasy  polish;  seventhly,  the  work 
is  comijleted  with  a  similar  roll  of  cloth  charged  with  putty 
powder  and  water.  Some  prefer,  as  the  polisher,  an  old 
cotton  stocking  not  made  into  a  rubber,  and  in  some  few  of  the 
more  delicate  works  crocus  is  used  intermediately  between 
the  emery  and  the  putty  jiowder.  It  is  necessary  to  wash 
the  marble  after  each  operation,  so  that  not  a  particle  of  the 
previous  polishing  material  may  remain,  otherwise  the  work 
will  be  scratched. 

The  dull  parts  of  sculpture  are  finished  in  four  different 
manners,  or  rather  the  complete  process  of  smoothing  is  dis- 
continued at  various  stages  so  as  to  form  four  gradations, 
which  may  be  described  as  follows  : 

i'7rs/.— The  marble  is  sometimes  left  from  the  long  and 
very  slender  statuary's  chisel,  the  reverse  end  of  which  is 
formed  with  a  sharj)  circular  edge  or  ridge,  just  like  a  hoUow 
centre,  in  order  that  the  metal  hammer,  which  is  of  soft  iron, 
tin  or  zinc,  may  be  slightly  indented  by  the  chisel,  so  as  to 
avoid  its  glancing  off ;  the  chisel  marks  leave  the  surface 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  »3 

somewhat  rongh  and  matted,  intermediate  between  the 
granular  and  crystalline  character. 

Secondly. — For  surfaces  somewhat  smoother,  rasps  are  used 
to  remove  the  ridges  left  by  the  chisel  ;  the  rasps  leave  a 
striated  or  lined  elfect  suitable  for  draperies,  and  which  in 
made  more  or  less  regular  according  to  the  uniformity  of  the 
strokes,  or  the  reverse. 

Third! t/. — Files  are  employed  for  still  smoother  surfaces  of 
the  same  character  ;  and  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  files 
and  rasps  are  generally  curved  at  the  ends,  to  adapt  them  to 
the  curvilinear  forms  of  the  sculpture. 

FourtJdif. — For  the  smoothest  of  the  dull  or  unpolished 
surfaces,  the  faint  marks  left  by  the  file  are  rubbed  out  with 
Trent  sand  or  silver  sand  and  water,  applied  by  means  of  a 
stick  of  deal  cut  to  a  point,  and  rubbed  all  over  the  work  in 
little  irregular  circles,  as  a  child  would  scribble  on  a  slat  v 
and  if  the  end  of  the  stick  is  covered  with  two  or  thre  > 
thicknesses  of  cloth  the  marble  receives  a  still  rounder  or 
softer  effect  than  from  the  naked  stick,  for  which  the  cabbag',' 
ivood  or  partridge  wood  is  sometimes  used,  and  the  end  of  the 
stick  is  slightly  bruised,  so  tliat  the  fibres  of  the  wood  may 
assume  the  character  of  the  stiff  brush,  known  by  artists  as  a 
scrub. 

Mr.  Thomas  Smith  tells  us  that  he  has  successfully  copied 
the  minute  roughness  or  granulation  of  the  skin,  by  a  kind  of 
etching  which  he  was  indixced  to  try,  by  imagining  that  he 
could  trace  such  a  jjrocess  to  have  been  used  in  some  of  the 
most  perfect  of  the  ancient  marbles  that  had  not  been  exposed 
to  the  open  air.  The  work  having  been  smoothed  with  sand, 
as  above,  he  takes  a  hard,  stubby  brush  and  therewith  dots 
the  marble  with  muriatic  acid,  and  which  quickly,  yet  par- 
tially, dissolves  the  surface.  The  strength  of  the  acid,  which 
must  not  be  excessive,  is  tested  upon  a  piece  of  waste  marble; 
the  brush  is  hastily  dipped  in  the  acid,  applied  to  the  work, 
quickly  rinsed  in  water,  and  then  used  for  removing  the  a  nd 
from  the  marble.  It  is  obvious  the  process  calls  for  a  certain 
admixture  of  dexterity  and  boldness,  and  sometimes  requires 
several  repetitions,  the  process  occui^ying  only  a  few  minutes 
each  time. 

Fifthly. — The  bright  jsarts  of  sculpture.  Few  of  the  works 
in  sculpture  are  polished,  and  such  as  are,  are  required  in  the 
first  instance  to  pass  through  the  four  stages  already  explained 


94  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

for  producing  the  smooth  but  dull  surface  ;  after  which, 
slender  square  pieces  of  the  second  gritstone  and  of  snake- 
stone  are  used  with  water  as  a  pencil,  and  then  fine  emery 
and  putty  powder  on  sticks  of  wood  ;  but  the  work  is  exceed- 
ingly tedious,  and  requires  very  great  care,  that  the  artistical 
character  of  the  work,  and  any  keen  edges  that  may  be  re- 
quired are  not  lost  in  the  polishing. 

Metals— Polishing. 

Metals  are  polished  either  by  burnishing  or  buffing.  The 
process  ot  burnishing  consists  in  rubbing  down  all  the  minute 
roiighnesses  by  means  of  a  highly  polished  steel  or  agate 
tool — none  of  the  metal  being  removed. 

The  action  of  the  burnisher  appears  to  depend  u^jon  two 
circumstances  ;  first,  that  the  harder  the  material  to  be 
jjolished  the  greater  lustre  it  will  receive  ;  the  burnisher  is, 
therefore,  commonly  made  of  hirdened  steel,  which  exceeds  in 
hardness  nearly  every  metallic  body.  And  secondly,  its 
action  depends  on  the  intimacy  of  the  contact  betwixt  the 
burnisher  and  the  work  ;  and  the  pressure  of  the  brightened 
burnisher  being,  in  reality,  from  its  rounded  or  elliptical 
section,  exerted  upon  only  one  mathematical  line  or  point  of 
the  work  at  a  time,  it  acts  with  great  pressure  and  in  a  man- 
ner distinctly  analogous  to  the  steel  die  used  in  making  coin ; 
in  which  latter  case  the  dull  but  smooth  blank  becomes  in- 
stantly the  bright  and  lustrous  coin,  in  virtue  of  the  intimate 
contact  produced  in  the  coining  press  between  the  entire 
surface  of  the  blank  and  that  of  the  highly  polished  die. 

It  by  no  means  follows,  however,  that  the  burnisher  will 
produce  highly  finished  surfaces,  unless  they  have  been  pre- 
viously rendered  smooth,  and  proper  for  the  apijlication  of 
this  instrument,  as  a  roi^gh  surface,  having  any  file  marks  or 
scratches,  will  exhibit  the  original  defects,  notwithstanding 
that  they  may  be  glossed  over  with  the  burnisher  which 
follows  every  irregularity  ;  and  excessive  pressure,  which 
might  be  expected  to  correct  the  evil  as  in  coining,  only  tills 
the  work  with  fun'ows,  or  produces  an  irregular  indented 
surface,  which  by  workmen  is  said  to  he  full  of  utters. 

Therefore,  the  greater  the  degree  of  excellence  that  is  re- 
quired in  burnished  works,  the  more  carefully  should  they 
be  smoothed  before  the  application  of  the  burnisher,  and  this 
tool  should  also  be  cleaned  on  a  buff  stick  with  crocus  im- 


T3dcE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  95 

mediately  before  u»e ;  and  it  siiould  in  general  be  applied 
with  the  learit  deg?e«  of  frictioii  that  will  suffice.  Cutlers 
mostly  consider  that  burnishers  for  steel  are  best  rubbed  on 
a  buff  stick  with  the  finest  tlour  emeiy  ;  for  silver,  however, 
they  polish  the  burnisher  with  crocus  as  usual.  Most  of  the 
metals,  previously  to  their  being  burnished,  are  rubbed  with 
oil  to  lessen  the  risk  of  tearing  or  scratcihing  them,  but  for 
gold  and  silver  the  burnisher  is  commonly  used  dry,  unless 
soap  and  water  or  skimmed  milk  are  employed  ;  and  for 
brass  furniture,  beer  or  water,  with  or  without  a  little  vinegar, 
is  i^referred  for  lubricating  the  burnisher. 

Buffing  is  performed  by  rubbing  the  metal  with  soft  leather, 
which  has  been  charged  with  very  fine  polishing  powder. 
The  rubbing  is  sometimes  done  by  hand,  but  more  frequently 
the  buff  is  made  into  a  wheel  which  revolves  rapidly  in  a 
lathe  and  the  work  is  held  against  it. 

The  polishing  jjowder  that  is  selected  must  be  chosen  wiUi 
sj^ecial  reference  to  the  metal  that  is  to  be  buffed.  Thus,  for 
steel  and  brass  the  best  polishing  powder  is  crocus  or  rouge, 
which  may  be  purchased  of  any  dealer  in  tools,  or  may  be 
made  by  exposing  very  clean  and  pure  crystals  of  sulphate  of 
iron  to  heat,  according  to  the  directions  given  hereafter  under 
the  head  of  Polishing  Powders.  The  hardest  part  of  the 
rouge  must  be  selected,  and  great  care  must  be  taken  to  have 
it  clean  and  free  from  particles  of  d  ast  and  sand,  which  would 
inevitably  scratch  the  article  to  be  polished  and  render  it 
necessary  to  again  repeat  all  the  previous  processes  of  filing, 
grinding,  etc. 

Soft  metals  like  gold  and  silver  may  be  polished  with  com- 
paratively soft  powders,  such  as  prepared  chalk  or  putty 
powder  (oxide  of  tin). 

When  metals  are  to  be  polished  in  the  lathe  the  i3rocess  is 
very  simple.  After  being  turned  or  filed  smooth  the  article 
is  still  further  polished  by  means  of  fine  emery  and  oil,  ap- 
plied with  a  stick,  and  in  the  case  of  rods  or  cylinders,  a  sort  of 
clamp  is  used  so  that  great  pressure  can  be  brought  to  bear 
on  the  part  to  be  polished.  The  work  must  be  examined 
from  time  to  time  to  see  that  all  parts  are  brought  uj?  equally 
to  the  greatest  smoothness  and  freedom  from  scratches,  and 
as  fast  as  this  occurs  jjolishing  powder  of  finer  and  finer 
quality  is  used,  until  the  required  finish  is  attained. 

In   polishing    metals   or  any   other  hard    substancee  by 


96  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

abrasion,  the  great  point  is  to  iDring  the  whole  snrfaoe  up 
equally.  A  single  scratch  Avill  destroy  the  appearance  of  the 
finest  work,  and  it  cannot  be  removed  except  by  going  back 
to  the  stage  to  which  it  corresponds,  and  beginning  again 
from  that  point.  Thus,  if  in  working  with  a  smooth  file  we 
make  a  scratch  as  deep  as  the  cut  of  a  bastard  file,  it  is  of 
no  use  to  try  and  remove  this  scratch  with  the  smooth  file, 
we  must  go  back,  and  taking  a  bastard  file  make  the  surface 
as  even  as  possible  with  it,  and  afterwards  work  foi-ward 
through  fine  files  and  polishing  jjowders. 

Mirrors. 

As  it  is  frequently  convenient  to  be  able  to  silver  a  jDiece  of 
glass  for  a  special  purpose,  we  quote  from  Faraday's  work  on 
Chemical  Manipulation,  the  following  directions  for  perform- 
ing this  operation  : 

A  piece  of  clean,  smooth  tinfoil,  free  from  holes,  is  to  be 
cut  to  the  same  size  as  the  glass  and  laid  upon  a  couple  of 
sheets  of  filtering  or  blotting  paper  folded  into  quarters.  A 
little  mercury  is  to  be  placed  on  the  foil,  and  rubbed  over  it 
with  a  hare's  foot,  or  with  a  ball  of  cotton  slightly  greased 
with  tallow,  until  the  whole  of  the  upijer  surface  of  the  leaf 
be  amalgamated  and  bright.  More  merciiry  is  then  *■  be 
added,  until  the  quantity  is  such  as  to  float  over  th*^  '.^foil. 
A  piece  of  clean  writing  paper,  with  smooth  edges,  is  to  be 
laid  upon  the  mercury,  and  then  the  glass  surface,  pre\aously 
well  cleaned,  is  to  be  applied  to  the  paper.  The  paper  is  to 
be  drawn  out  from  between  the  merciiry  and  the  glass,  while 
a  slight  but  steady  pressure  is  to  be  apjalied  to  the  latter. 
As  the  paper  recedes  it  carries  all  air  and  dirt  with  it  from 
between  the  glass  and  the  metal,  which  come  into  perfect 
contact. 

The  mirror  is  now  made,  and  may  be  used  for  an  exi^eri- 
ment ;  but  there  is  still  much  more  mercury  present  than  is 
required  to  make  the  definite  and  hard  amalgam  of  tin  con- 
stituting the  usual  reflecting  surface.  If  it  be  desired  to  re- 
move this  excess,  the  newly -formed  mirror  must  be  put  under 
the  pressure  of  a  flat  board,  in  a  slightly -inclined  position, 
and  loaded  with  weights. 

The  success  of  this  oi^eration  will  be  found  to  depend 
chiefly  upon  the  care  exercised  in  cleaning  the  glass. 

jSilveritig  Glass  Mirrors  fey)'  Optical  Purposes. — This  is  best 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  97 

effected  by  depositing  i^ure  silver  on  the  glass.  The  light 
reflected  from  a  mirror  made  thus  has  somewhat  of  a  yellowish 
tinge,  but  photometric  experiments  show  that  from  25  to  30 
per  cent,  more  light  is  reflected  than  from  the  old  mercurial 
mirrors. 

Where  ammonium  aldehyde  can  be  obtained,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  this  is  the  best  and  most  economical  process, 
whether  used  on  a  large  or  a  small  scale.  But  those  who 
have  not  had  considerable  experience  in  the  laboratory  can- 
not always  prepare  this  compound. 

Tl'.e  next  best  process  is  based  upon  the  reduction  of 
IT'  ""^^llic  silver  from  its  ammoniacal  solution  by  salts  of  tartar. 
Axter  a  trial  of  several  formulse  of  this  kind,  all  of  them  more 
C»~  less  simple,  as  well  as  efficacious,  the  following  has  been 
ft  and  to  yield  the  best  results  in  the  shortest  time. 

Silvering  Solution. — In  1  ounce  of  distilled  or  pure_  rain 
water,  dissolve  48  grains  of  crystalized  nitrate  of  silver. 
Precipitate  by  adding  strongest  water  of  ammonia,  and  con- 
tinue to  add  the  ammonia  drop  by  drop,  stirring  the  solution 
with  a  glass  rod,  until  the  brown  precipitate  is  nearly,  but 
not  quite  redissolved.  Filter,  and  add  distilled  water  to 
make  12  fluid  drachms. 

Reducing  Solution. — Dissolve  in  1  ounce  of  distilled  or 
very  clean  rain  Avater,  12  grains  of  i^otassium  and  sodium 
tartrate  (Eochelle  or  Seignette  salts).  Boil,  in  a  flask,  and 
while  boiling  add  2  grains  crystalized  nitrate  of  silver  dis- 
solved in  1  drachm  of  water.  Continue  the  boiling  five  or 
six  minutes.  Let  cool,  filter,  and  add  distilled  water  to  make 
12  fluid  drachms. 

To  Silver.— Provision  must  be  made  for  supporting  the 
glass  in  a  perfectly  horizontal  position  at  the  surface  of  the 
liquid.  This  is  best  done  by  cementing  to  the  face  of  the 
mirror  three  nice  hooks  by  which  it  may  be  hung  from  a 
temporary  framework — easily  made  out  of  a  few  sticks. 

The  glass  to  be  silvered  must  be  cleansed  by  immersing 
it  in  strong  nitric  acid,  w  ashing  in  liquor  potassse,  and  thor- 
oughly rinsing  with  distilled  water.  If  the  glass  has  had 
mercurial  amalgam  on  it,  it  will  probably  be  necessary  to 
clean  the  back  with  rouge.  On  having  this  surface  per- 
fectly, chemically  clean,  depends  in  a  great  measure  th*^  suc- 
cess of  the  operation. 

Having  aiTanged  the  contrivance  for  suspending  the  glass 


98  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

so  that  it  may  be  at  exactly  the  right  height  in  tha  •»^es«el 
that  is  to  receive  the  sohition,  remove  this  vessel  and  pour 
into  it  enough  of  equal  quantities  of  the  two  solutions  to  fill 
it  exactly  to  the  previously  ascertained  level.  Stir  the  solu' 
tions  so  that  they  will  become  thoroughly  mixed,  and  rej^lace 
the  glass  to  be  silvered,  taking  great  care  that  the  surface  to 
be  silvered  shall  come  in  contact  with  the  silvering  fluid  ex- 
actly at  all  ]3oints.  The  glass  plate  should  be  rinsed  carefully 
before  replacing,  and  should  be  jaut  in  Avliile  wet.  Great  care 
should  be  taken  that  no  air  biibbles  remain  on  the  surface  of 
the  solution,  or  between  it  and  the  surface  to  be  silvered. 

Now  set  the  vessel  in  the  sun  for  a  few  minutes,  if  th<) 
weather  be  warm,  or  by  the  fire,  if  it  be  cold,  as  a  tempera- 
ture of  45°  to  50°  G.  (113°  to  122°  Fah.)  is  most  conducive 
to  the  rapid  dej^osition  of  a  brilliant,  firm  and  even  film  of 
silver.  The  fluid  in  the  sunlight  soon  becomes  inky  black, 
gradually  clearing  as  the  silver  is  reduced,  until  when  ex- 
hausted it  is  perfectly  clear.  The  mirror  should  be  removed 
before  this  point  is  reached,  as  a  process  of  bleaching  sets 
Tip  if  left  after  the  fluid  is  exhausted.  From  20  to  80  minutes, 
according  to  the  weather,  purity  of  chemicals,  etc.,  is  re- 
quired for  the  entire  jn-ocess. 

When  the  mirror  is  removed  fi'om  the  bath,  it  should  be 
carefully  rinsed  with  distilled  water  from  the  wash  bottle, 
and  laid  on  its  edge  on  l^lotting  paper  to  dry.  When  jjer- 
fectly  dry,  the  back  should  be  varnished  with  some  elastic 
varnish  and  allowed  to  dry.  The  Avires  and  cement  can  now 
be  removed  from  the  face,  and  the  glass  cleaned  with  a  little 
fledget  of  cotton  and  a  minute  drop  of  nitric  acid,  taking 
great  care  that  the  acid  does  not  get  to  the  edges  or  under 
the  varnish.     Einse,  dry  and  the  mirror  is  finished. 

Silve7'  Amalgam  for  Mirrors. — The  great  objections  to 
mirrors  coated  with  pure  silver  are  the  yellow  character  of 
tlie  reflected  light,  and  the  fact  that  such  mirrors  are  ajjt  to 
be  affected  by  sulphur.  M.  Lenoii-  has  invented  a  process 
which  is  said  to  avoid  these  difliculties.  The  glass  is  first 
silvered  by  means  of  tartaric  acid  and  ammoniacal  nitrate  of 
silver,  or  hj  the  jjrocess  described  in  the  jjreceding  section, 
aiid  is  then  exposed  to  the  action  of  a  Aveak  solution  of  double 
cyani':^_e  of  mercury  and  i^otassium.  When  the  mercurial 
solution  has  spread  uniformly  over  the  surface,  fine  zinc  dust 
is  i^owdered  over  it,  which  promptly  reduces  the  quicksilver, 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  99 

and  permits  it  to  form  a  white  and  brilliant  silver  amalgam, 
adhering  strongly  to  the  glass,  and  which  is  affirmed  to  be 
free  from  the  yellowish  tint  of  ordinary  silvered  glass,  and 
not  easily  affected  by  snli^hnrous  emanations. 

Care  of  Looking  Glasses. — When  looking  glasses  are  ex- 
posed to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  or  to  very  strong  heat 
from  a  fire  the  amalgam  is  apt  to  crystallize  and  the  mii-ror 
loses  its  brilliancy.  If  a  mirror  is  placed  where  the  rays  of 
the  sun  can  strike  it,  it  should  be  covered  in  that  part  of  the 
day  during  which  it  is  exposed. 

The  best  method  of  cleaning  looking  glasses  is  as  follows  : 
Take  a  newspaper,  fold  it  small,  dip  it  into  a  basin  of  clean 
cold  water.  When  thoroughly  wet  sqiieeze  it  out  as  you  do 
a  sponge  ;  then  rub  it  pretty  hard  all  over  the  surface  of  the 
glass,  taking  care  that  it  is  not  so  wet  as  to  run  down  in 
streams  ;  in  fact,  the  paj^er  must  only  be  completely  moist- 
ened or  dampened  all  through.  Let  it  rest  a  few  minutes, 
then  go  over  the  glass  with  a  piece  of  fresh  newspaper  till  it 
looks  clear  and  bright.  The  insides  of  windows  may  be 
cleaned  in  the  same  way;  also  spectacle-glasses,  lamp-glasses, 
etc.  White  paper  that  has  not  been  printed  on  is  better; 
but  in  the  absence  of  that,  a  very  old  newspaper,  on  which 
the  ink  has  become  thoroughly  dried,  should  be  used. 
Writing  paper  will  not  answer. 

Nickel. 

This  is  by  far  the  most  valuable  metal  that  has  been 
brought  into  notice  during  the  jiast  few  years.  It  has  been 
long  familiar  to  chemists,  and  as  a  component  of  German 
silver,  electrum,  and  similar  alloys,  it  has  been  in  common 
Tise,  but  as  an  unalloyed  coating  for  other  metals  it  has  only 
been  employed  for  about  ten  years. 

It  is  hard,  not  easily  corroded  by  acids,  and,  unlike  silvei-, 
it  is  entirely  unaffected  by  sulphur.  In  addition  to  these 
valuable  qualities  it  has  one  of  special  importance  in  some 
cases,  and  that  is  the  ease  with  which  a  nickel  surface  slides 
over  any  other  smooth  body.  Hence,  for  the  sliding  pai-ts  of 
telescopes,  microscopes,  etc.,  it  has  come  into  very  general 
use,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  it  will  prove  of  great  value 
in  the  case  of  slide  valves,  pistons,  etc. 

Nickel  is  almost  always  applied  as  a  coating  by  the  electro- 
plating process,  for  mstructions  in  which  art  we  must  refer 


100  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

our  readers  to  any  good  work  on  the  art  of  electro-metal- 
lurgy. 

A  foreign  journal  gives  the  following  directions  for  nickel 
plating  without  a  battery  :  To  a  solution  of  five  to  ten  per 
cent,  of  chloride  of  zinc,  as  pure  as  possible,  add  sufficient 
sulphate  of  nickel  to  produce  a  strong  green  color,  and  bring 
to  boiling  in  a  porcelain  vessel.  The  jjiece  to  be  plated, 
which  must  be  perfectly  bright  and  free  from  grease,  is  in- 
troduced so  that  it  touches  the  vessel  as  little  as  possible. 
Ebullition  is  continued  from  30  to  60  minutes,  water  being 
added  from  time  to  time  to  rejalace  that  evajjorated.  During 
ebullition  nickel  is  precipitated  in  tlie  h)rm  of  a  white  and 
1^  pliant  coating.  The  Ijoiling  can  be  continued  for  hours 
without  sensibly  increasing  the  thickness  of  this  coating. 
As  soon  as  tho  object  appears  to  be  plated  it  is  washed  in 
water  containing  a  little  chalk  in  siispension,  and  then  care- 
fully dried.  This  coating  may  be  scoured  with  chalk,  and  is 
very  adherent.  The  chloride  of  zinc  and  also  the  suli^hate  of 
nickel  used  must  be  free  from  metals  precipitable  by  iron. 
If  during  the  precipitation  the  liquor  becomes  colorless, 
sulphate  of  nickel  should  be  added.  The  spent  liquor  may  be 
used  again  by  exposing  to  the  air  until  the  contained  iron  is 
precipitated,  filtering  and  adding  the  zinc  and  nickel  salts 
as  above.    Cobalt  also  may  be  deposited  in  the  same  manner. 

Noise— Prevention  of. 

To  those  who  carry  on  any  operations  requiring  much  ham- 
mering or  pounding,  a  simple  means  of  deadening  the  noise 
of  their  work  is  a  great  relief.  Several  methods  have  been 
suggested,  but  the  best  are  probably  these  : 

1.  Riibber  cushions  under  the  legs  of  the  work-bench. 
Chamber's  Journal  describes  a  factory  where  the  hammering 
of  fifty  coppersmiths  was  scarcely  audible  in  the  room  below, 
their  benches  having  under  each  leg  a  rubber  cushion. 

2.  Kegs  of  sand  or  sawdust  applied  in  tlie  same  way.  A 
few  inches  of  sand  or  sawdust  is  first  poured  into  each  keg ; 
on  this  is  laid  a  board  or  block  upon  which  the  leg  rests. 
and  round  the  leg  and  block  is  poured  fine  dry  sand  or  saw- 
dust. Not  only  all  noise,  but  all  vibration  and  shock,  is 
prevented  ;  and  an  ordinary  anvil,  so  mounted,  may  be  used 
in  a  dwelling  house  without  annoying  the  inhabitants.  To 
amateurs,  whose  workshops  are  almost  always  located  in 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  101 

dwelling  houses,  this  device  affords  a  cheap  and  simple  relief 
from  a  very  great  annoyance. 

Painting  Bright  Metals. 

Wlien  paint  is  applied  to  bright  metals  like  tin  or  zinc,  it 
is  very  apt  to  peel  off.  This  difficulty  is  greatly  lessened  if 
the  metal  be  hot  when  the  jjaint  is  applied,  taut  in  many 
cases  this  cannot  be  done.  In  such  cases  the  surface  of  the 
metal  should  be  corroded,  for  which  pu^rpose  a  solution  of 
sulphate  of  copi^er,  acidulated  with  nitric  acid  answers  well. 
The  metal  should  be  washed  with  the  solution,  allowed  to 
stand  a  couple  of  hours,  and  then  washed  with  clean  water 
and  dried. 

Painting  (he  Hours  on  Metal  Dials. — The  black  coloring 
matter  is  the  soot  obtained  by  holding  a  clean  copper  or 
sheet  metal  plate  over  the  flame  of  an  oil  or  petroleum  lamp 
(a  glowing  tool  serves  the  purpose  very  well).  As  soon  as  a 
sufficient  deposit  is  produced  it  is  collected  on  a  piece  of 
glass,  care  being  taken  not  to  mix  any  foreign  substance  with 
it.  A  few  drops  of  essence  of  lavender  are  then  poured  on 
the  soot  and  the  mixture  pounded  with  a  spatula.  This  done, 
just  sufficient  copal  varnish  is  added  to  give  the  composition 
a  proper  thickness,  so  as  to  prevent  it  spreading  when  ap- 
plied. The  varnish  thus  prepared  is  put  on  by  means  of  a 
very  fine  brush.  To  secure  brilliancy  the  dial  is  dried  at  a 
slow  heat,  by  jDassing  it  lightly  over  a  spirit  flame,  the  reverse 
side  of  the  dial  being,  of  course,  the  only  part  exposed  to  the 
flame.  This  comi)osition  must  be  made  in  quantities  large 
enough  for  present  use  only,  as  it  dries  very  rapidly  and 
cannot  be  utilized  afterwards.  To  secure  good  results  this 
process  requires  some  experience,  which  can  only  be  obtained 
by  careful  experiments.  The  painting  especially  requires  a 
certain  aptitude  and  lightness  of  hand,  which  may,  however, 
soon  be  attained  by  strict  attention. 

This  process,  which  gives  very  excellent  results,  is  evi- 
dently applicable  to  a  great  variety  of  purposes. 

Paper. 

There  are  so  many  purposes  to  which  paper  is  applied  that 
a  small  volume  might  be  filled  with  a  description  of  them. 
The  following  are  those  which  will  probably  prove  most 
useful  to  the  amateur  : 

Adhesive  Paper. — Paper    in    sheets,   half    of   which    we 


102  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

gummed  on  botli  sides,  and  the  other  half  on  one  side,  and 
divided  into  strips  and  squares  of  different  sizes  by  perfora- 
tions, like  sheets  of  postage  stamps,  are  very  convenient  in 
many  ways — the  doubly-gummed  answering  for  fixing  draw- 
ings in  books,  labels  on  glass,  etc.  It  is  stated  that  the 
mixture  by  which  it  is  coated  is  prepared  by  dissolving  six 
parts  of  glue,  previously  soaked  for  a  day  in  cold  water,  two 
parts  of  sugar,  and  three  parts  of  gum  arable,  in  twenty -four 
parts  of  Avater,  by  the  aid  of  heat. 

B(iromete)-  Paper. — This  is  paper  impregnated  with  a  so- 
called  symijatlietic  ink,  which  alters  its  color  by  a  change  of 
temperatiire.  The  most  delicate  substance  to  accomjilish 
this  is  sidphocyaitide  of  cobalt,  originally  proposed  by  Grotthus. 
This  is  prepared  by  adding  an  alcoholic  solution  of  potassium 
Buliihocyanide  to  an  aqueous  solution  of  cobaltous  suljjhate, 
until  no  more  potassium  sulphate  separates.  The  whole  is 
transferred  to  a  filter,  and  the  residue  on  the  filter  (potassium 
sulphate)  washed  with  alcohol.  The  dilute  filtrate  may  be 
used  as  it  is,  for  impregnating  paper,  or  it  may  be  concen- 
trated by  very  careful  evaporation  at  as  low  a  temperature  as 
possible.  The  salt  may  be  obtained  crystalline  by  removing 
the  alcoholic  menstruum  in  the  vacuum  of  an  air-pump.  It 
forms  violet  columns,  soluble  in  Avater  with  red  color.  Paper 
impregnated  with  the  alcoholic  solution,  or  on  which  tracings 
have  been  made  with  the  latter,  turns  reddish  in  dry  air,  but 
assumes  a  blue  color  at  the  slightest  elevation  of  temperature. 

Creases,  To  Tc(ke  out  of  Drawing  Paperr  or  JE/if/ravings. — Lay 
the  pajjer  or  engraving,  face  downwards,  on  a  sheet  of  smooth, 
unsized  white  paper  :  cover  it  with  another  sheet  of  the  same, 
very  slightly  dami^ed,  and  iron  with  a  moderately  Avarm  flat 
iron. 

Drawing  Paper,  To  Mount. — Sometimes  it  is  difficult  to  get 
a  draAving  on  a  sheet  of  paper  of  the  ordinary  sizes  when 
etretched  upon  a  board,  by  reason  of  the  waste  edges  used  to 
lecure  the  paper  firmly  ;  and  again,  in  stiff  papers,  such  as 
the  "Eggshell,"  so  called,  ordinary  mucilage  does  not  pos- 
sess sufllcient  strength,  and  glue  has  to  be  substituted,  to  the 
annoyance  of  the  draughtsman.  The  folloAving  is  a  very 
simple  way  of  obAdating  these  difficiilties  :  First  moisten  the 
pajjer  thoroughly  ;  then  lay  it  upon  the  board  in  jiroper 
position,  and,  Avith  blotting  jJajjer,  remove  most  of  the  moist- 
ure for  a  distance  of  half  an  inch  or  thereabouts  from  the 


THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION.  103 

edges  ;  then  take  strips  of  Mauila  paper  (not  too  stifi*)  aboiat 
one  and  a  half  inches  wide,  covered  on  one  side  with  mucil- 
age, and  paste  them  down  on  both  paper  and  board,  allowing 
them  to  lap  on  the  edges  of  the  sheet  about  half  an  inch. 
Keep  the  middle  of  the  sheet  thoroughly  wet  until  the 
mucilage  on  the  edges  has  set,  when  the  whole  sheet  may  be 
allowed  to  dry  gradually.  It  will  be  found  that  this  method 
is  quicker  and  surer  than  any  other,  and  is  of  great  use  where 
it  is  necessary  to  color  on  mounted  paper. 

Glass- Paper. — Paper  coated  with  glass  is  known  by  this 
name  just  as  paper  coated  with  fine  sharp  sand  is  called  sand- 
paper, and  paper  coated  with  emery  is  called  emery  paper. 
Paper  or  a  cheap  cloth  is  coated  with  thinnish  glue,  dusted 
heavily  and  evenly  with  glass-powder  of  the  proper  fineness, 
and  allowed  to  become  nearly  dry.  The  superfluous  powder 
is  then  shaken  oif,  the  sheets  are  pressed  to  make  them  even, 
and  afterwards  thoroughly  dried. 

The  objection  to  ordinary  glass-paper  is  that  it  is  easily 
injured  by  heat  and  moisture.  If  the  glue  be  mixed  with  a 
little  bichromate  of  potassa  before  it  is  applied  to  the  cloth, 
and  exposed  for  some  time  to  strong  bright  sunshine  while  it 
is  drying,  it  will  become  insoluble  in  water. 

The  glue  may  also  be  rendered  insoluble  by  the  process  of 
tanning.  The  paper  or  cloth  is  first  soaked  in  a  solution  of 
tannic  acid  and  dried.  The  glue  is  then  applied,  the 
powdered  glass  dusted  on,  and  over  it  is  dusted  a  little  tannic 
acid.  If  the  glue  be  not  very  moist,  it  should  be  damped  by 
means  of  an  atomiser,  a  very  cheap  form  of  Avhich  is  figured 
in  The  Young  Scientist,  vol.  2.  The  sheets  are  then  slowly 
dried  and  will  be  found  to  resist  moisture  very  thoroughly. 

Paper,  To  Prepare  for  Varnishing. — To  prevent  the  ab- 
sorption of  varnish,  and  injury  to  any  color  or  design  on  the 
paper,  it  is  necessary  to  first  give  it  two  or  three  coats  of 
size.  The  best  size  for  white  or  delicate  colors  is  made  by 
dissolving  a  little  isinglass  in  boiling  water,  or  by  boiling 
some  clean  parchment  cuttings  until  they  form  a  clear  sohi- 
tion ;  then  strain  through  a  jjiece  of  clean  muslin.  It  may  be 
apjjlied  with  a  clean  soft  paint  brush,  the  first  coat,  especially, 
veiy  lightly.  The  liest  brush  for  this  purpose  is  the  kind 
used  by  varnishers  for  giving  the  finishing  flow  coats  of 
varnish,  wide,  flat  and  soft ;  or  where  there  is  much  danger 
of  injuring  a  design,  and  the  paper  article  will  allow  of  it,  it 


104  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

is  a  good  plan  for  the  first  coat,  to  pour  the  solution  into  a 
wide,  flat  dish,  and  pass  the  paper  through  it  once,  and  back 
again,  and  then  hang  it  up  to  dry.  For  less  delicate  pur- 
poses, a  little  light-colored  glue,  soaked  over  night  in  enough 
water  to  cover  it,  and  then  dissolved  by  heat,  adding  hot 
water  enough  to  dilute  it  sufficiently,  will  make  an  excellent 
sizing. 

Pollen  Powder,  or  Paper  Powder. — Boil  white  jDai^er  or 
paper  cuttings  in  water  for  five  hours.  Pour  off  the  water, 
pound  the  pulp  in  a  wedgwood  mortar,  and  pass  through  a 
tine  sieve.  This  powder  is  employed  by  the  bird  stuffers  to 
dust  over  the  legs  of  some  birds,  and  the  bills  of  others,  to 
give  them  a  powdery  appearance  ;  also  to  communicate  the 
downy  bloom  to  rough-coated  artificial  fruit,  and  other  pur- 
l)oses  of  a  similar  nature  ;  it  makes  excellent  pounce. 

Tniciuri  Paper. — Tracing  paper  may  be  purchased  so 
cheaply  that  it  is  hardly  worth  while  to  make  it  ;  and  there 
is  a  very  fine,  to^^gh  kind  now  in  market  which  may  be 
mounted  and  coloi'ed  almost  like  drawing  paper.  Those  who 
desire  to  prepare  some  for  themselves  will  find  that  the  follow- 
ing directions  give  a  good  resiilt.  The  inventor  of  the  pro- 
cess received  a  medal  and  premium  from  the  Society  of  Arts 
for  it. 

Open  a  quire  of  toiigh  tissue  paper,  and  brush  the  first 
sheet  with  a  mixture  of  equal  i^arts  of  mastic  varnish  and  oil 
of  turpentine.  Proceed  with  each  sheet  similarly  and  dry 
them  on  lines  by  hanging  them  iTp  singly.  As  the  i^rocess 
goes  on,  the  under  sheets  absorb  a  portion  of  the  varnish,  and 
require  less  than  if  single  sheets  were  brushed  sejiarately. 
The  paper,  when  dry,  is  quite  light  and  transj^arent,  and  may 
readily  be  written  on  with  ink. 

Transfer jKipe)'. — -This  is  iiseful  for  copying  patterns,  draw- 
ings, etc.  Designs  for  scroll  saws  may  be  copied  very  neatly 
by  means  of  it.  It  is  easily  made  by  rubbing  a  thin  but 
tough  unglazed  paper  with  a  mixture  of  lard  and  lampblack. 
The  copy  is  made  by  laying  a  sheet  of  the  transfer  or,  as  it 
is  sometimes  called,  manifold  j^aper,  over  a  clean  sheet  of 
drawing  or  writing  paper,  and  over  it  the  drawing  to  be 
copied.  The  lines  of  the  drawing  are  then  carefiilly  traced 
w  ith  a  fine  but  blunt  point,  and  the  pressure  along  the  lines 
ti-ansfers  to  the  clean  paper  underneath  a  perfect  copy.  To 
keep  the  under  side  of  the  drawing  or  pattern  clean,  a  sheet 


THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION.  105 

of  visBue  paper  may  be  placed  between  it  and  the  transfer 
pallor. 

\V<(fer  Stains,  To  Remove  from  Engravings  or  Paper. — Fill  a 
large  vessel  with  pure  water  and  dij)  the  engi-aving  in,  waving 
it  backward  and  forward  until  thoroughly  wet.  Then  spread 
a  sheet  of  clean  white  paper  on  a  drawing  board,  lay  the  en- 
graving on  it  and  fasten  both  to  the  board  with  drawing  pins. 
Expose  it  to  bright  siinshine,  keeping  it  moist  until  the  stains 
disap[)ear,  which  will  not  be  long.  This  is  simply  a  modifi- 
cation of  the  old  system  of  bleaching  linen. 

Wu.red  Paper. — -Paper  saturated  wdth  wax,  paraffin  or 
stearin  is  very  useful  for  wrapisiug  uj)  articles  which  should 
be  kept  dry  and  not  exposed  to  the  air.  Place  a  sheet  of 
stout  paper  on  a  heated  iron  plate,  and  over  this  place  the 
sheets  of  unglazed  paper — tissue  pajier  does  very  well — that 
are  to  be  waxed.  Enclose  the  wax  or  jiaraffin  in  a  piece  of 
muslin,  and  as  it  melts  spread  it  evenly  over  the  paper. 

Patina. 

An  imitation  of  patina  for  bronze  objects  of  all  kinds  can 
be  i^roduced  by  preparing  a  paint  of  carbonate  of  coisjier 
and  any  light  alcoholic  varnish,  and  applying  it  to  the  object 
with  a  brush.  This  green  color  penetrates  the  smallest  re- 
cesses, and  has,  when  dry,  the  apjiearance  of  patina.  Car- 
bonate of  cojiper  gives  a  blue  patina,  verdigris  a  light  gi-een, 
and  intermediate  shades  of  color  can  be  obtained  by  mixing 
the  two. 

Patterns— To  Trace. 

There  are  various  methods  of  making  copies  of  patterns  on 
paper,  the  simplest  perhaps  being  the  use  of  the  tracing 
j)aper  described  on  another  page. 

When  a  few  duplicates  of  j^atterns  for  embroidery  are  re- 
quired, they  may  be  very  easily  made  by  hand  as  follows  : 

The  drawing  is  made  upon  paper  ;  then  lay  the  drawing 
upon  an  even  cloth,  and  perforate  all  the  lines  with  a  tine 
needle,  close  and  even.  Then  take  finely  powdered  charcoal, 
three  jaarts,  resin  one  part  in  fine  j^owder  ;  mix  and  tie  it  in 
a  piece  of  porous  calico,  so  that  it  forms  a  dusting  bag.  Lay 
the  perfoi'ated  drawing  upon  your  material,  hold  down  with 
one  hand,  rub  the  dusting-bBg  over  the  drawing  ;  the  dust 
will  fall  through  the  holes  and  form  the  drawing  on  the  ma- 
terial.    Remove  the  paper  drawing,  lay  blotting-paper  over 


106  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

the  dast  pattern,  and  go  over  it  with  a  warm  flat  iron 
The  heat  will  melt  the  resin  and  fix  the  drawing  on  the 
material. 

Pencils  as  a  Substitute  for  Ink. 

Aniline  pencils  have  been  in  iTse  for  some  time,  and  have 
given  good  satisfaction,  but  the  following  is  said  to  give  even 
better  results.  Pencils  made  after  the  following  formula 
give  a  very  black  writing,  capable  of  being  rejiroduced  by 
the  copying  machine,  and  which  does  not  fade  on  exjjosure 
to  light.  The  mass  for  these  pencils  is  prepared  as  follows  : 
10  pounds  of  the  best  logwood  are  repeatedly  boiled  in  10 
gallons  of  water,  straining  each  time.  The  liquid  is  then 
evaporated  down  till  it  weighs  10  jDoiinds,  and  is  then 
allowed  to  boil  in  a  pan  of  stoneware  or  enamel.  To  the 
boiling  liquid,  nitrate  of  oxide  of  chrome  is  added  in  small 
quantities,  until  the  bronze-colored  precipitate  formed  at  first 
is  redissolved  with  a  deep  blue  coloration.  This  solution  is 
then  evaporated  in  the  water  bath  down  to  a  siruiJ,  Avith 
which  is  mixed  well  kneaded  clay  in  the  j^ropoi-tion  of  1  part 
of  clay  to  3^  of  extract.  A  little  gum  tragacanth  is  also 
added  to  obtain  a  jjroper  consistence. 

It  is  absolutely  necessary  to  use  the  salt  of  chrome  in  the 
right  proportion.  An  excess  of  this  salt  gives  a  disagreeable 
appearance  to  the  writing,  while  if  too  little  is  used  the  black 
matter  is  not  sufficiently  soluble. 

The  other  salts  of  chrome  cannot  be  used  in  this  prepara- 
tion, as  they  would  crystallize,  and  the  writing  would  scale 
off  as  it  dried. 

The  nitrate  of  oxide  of  chrome  is  prepared  by  precipitating 
a  hot  solution  of  chrome  alum  with  a  suitable  quantity  of 
carbonate  of  soda.  The  precipitate  is  washed  till  the  filtrate 
is  free  from  sulphuric  acid.  The  precij^itate  thus  ol»tained 
is  dissolved  in  j^ure  nitric  acid,  so  as  to  leave  a  little  still 
undissolved.  Hence  the  solution  contains  no  free  acid, 
which  would  give  the  ink  a  dirty  red  color.  Oxalic  acid  and 
caustic  alkalies  do  not  attack  the  wi'iting.  Dilute  nitric 
acid  reddens,  but  does  not  obliterate  the  characters. 

Pencil  Marks— To  Fix. 

To  fix  Pencil  Marks  so  they  will  not  rub  out,  take  well- 
skimmed  milk  and  dilute  with  an  equal  bulk  of  water. 
Wash  the  pencil  marks  (whether  writing  or  drawing)  with 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  107 

tliis  liquid,  using  a  soft,  flat  camel-liair  brush,  and  avoiding 
all  rubbing.     Place  upon  a  flat  board  to  dry. 

Pewter. 

The  principal  constituents  of  i^ewter  are  lead  and  tin  ;  the 
l^roportions  of  the  two  metals  dejiending  somewhat  on  the 
use  to  which  the  alloy  is  put.  The  best  contains  but  16 
to  20  per  cent,  of  lead.  -Of  this  plates  and  dishes  are  made, 
which  look  like  block  tin,  <ind  can  be  brightly  polished  by 
rubbing.  The  addition  of  more  lead  cheai^ens  the  com- 
modity, and  gives  it  a  dull  bluish  apjiearance.  In  France 
pewter  vessels  for  wine  and  vinegar  contain  18  per  cent,  of 
lead.  It  has  been  found  that  a  larger  pro^jortion  of  that 
metal  in  utensils  for  this  jjurijose  "^  liable  to  result  in  the 
formation,  in  the  liquid,  of  the  j)oisonous  acetate  or  sugar  of 
lead. 

A  little  copper  added  in  making  pewter  hardens  the  com- 
jsouiid  and  renders  it  sonorous,  so  that  toy  trumpets  and 
other  rude  musical  instruments  can  be  made  of  it.  If  the 
copper  is  replaced  by  antimony,  hardness  and  a  sUvery  lustre 
^re  the  result.  If  the  contents  of  the  melting  pot  are  stirred 
with  a  strip  half  of  zinc  and  half  of  tin,  or  if  a  lump  of  zinc 
is  allowed  to  float  on  the  melted  metal  during  the  casting, 
the  vajjorized  sj^elter  seems  to  protect  the  fluid  mass  fi-om 
oxidation,  and  j)revents  the  formation  of  dross.  Hence  it  is 
said  to  "  cleanse  "  the  mass. 

Jewellers  use  polishers  and  laps  of  pewter,  and  sheets  of 
the  article  are  to  some  extent  used  for  cheap  engraving, 
music  notes,  or  other  figures  being  stamiDcd  upon  it  instead 
of  being  cut  with  a  burin  or  graver.  The  ease  with  Avhich  it 
melts  causes  it  to  be  employed  by  tinsmiths  and  tinkers  for 
solder.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  set  pewter  dishes,  mugs, 
spoons,  lamps,  etc. ,  on  stoves  or  other  hot  bodies,  as,  if  left 
for  any  time,  they  are  liable  to  settle  into  shapeless  lumjis. 

Pillows  for  the  Sick  Room. 

Save  all  your  scraps  of  writing  paper,  old  enveloises,  old 
notes  of  no  use  for  keeping,  old  backs  of  notes,  etc.  Cut 
them  in  strij^s  about  one-half  inch  wide  and  two  inches  long, 
and  curl  them  well  with  an  old  penknife.  Make  a  pillow  case 
of  any  materials  you  have  ;  fill  it  with  your  ciirled  paper  mixed 
with  a  few  shreds  of  flannel.  Stuff"  it  quite  full,  sew  up  the 
end  and  cover  as  you  please,     These  pillows  are  invaluable 


108  THE  WOEKSHOP  COMPANION. 

in  cases  of  fever,  as  they  keep  constantly  cool  and  allow  a 
circulation  of  air. 

Plaster  of  Paris. 

Plaster  of  Paris  is  a  well  known  material,  obtained  by  ex- 
150sing  the  purer  varieties  of  gyijsum  or  alabaster  to  a  heat 
a  little  above  that  of  boiling  Avater,  when  it  becomes  a  fine, 
white  dry  powder.  Sometimes  the  gj'psiim  is  first  reduced 
to  a  fine  jjowder  and  then  heated  in  iron  pans,  and  in  this 
case  the  operation  is  sometimes  called  "  boiling "  plaster, 
because  the  escape  of  the  water,  with  Avliich  crystalline  gyp- 
sum is  always  combined,  gives  to  the  fine  powder  the  api^ear- 
ance  of  boiling.  Plaster  of  Paris,  after  being  boiled,  raj^idly 
deteriorates  when  exi^osed  to  the  air,  consequently  when 
plaster  is  required  for  making  cements  or  for  other  purposes 
for  which  a  good  article  is  needed,  care  must  be  taken  to 
secure  that  which  is  good  and  freshly  boiled.  The  Italian 
image  makers  always  use  a  superior  quality  of  plaster,  and  it 
may  generally  be  obtained  from  them  in  small  quantity. 

The  employment  of  gypsum  in  casting,  and  in  all  cases 
where  impressions  are  required,  is  very  extensive.  A  thin 
pulp  of  1  part  gypsum  and  2^  parts  water  is  made  ;  this  pulp 
hardens  by  standing.  The  hardening  of  good,  well-burnt 
gypsum  is  effected  in  one  to  two  minutes,  and  more  qxiickly 
in  a  moderate  heat.  Models  are  made  in  this  substance  for 
galvano-j^lastic  jjuri^oses,  for  metallic  castings,  and  for  ground 
works  in  jjorcelain  manufacture.  The  object  from  which  the 
cast  is  to  be  taken  is  first  well  oiled  to  prevent  the  adhesion 
of  the  gypsum.  When  greater  hardness  is  required  a  small 
quantity  of  lime  is  added  ;  this  addition  gives  a  very  marble- 
like appearance,  and  the  mixture  is  much  employed  in  archi- 
tecture, being  then  known  as  gyjisum-marble  or  stucco. 
The  gyijsum  is  generally  mixed  with  lime  water,  to  which 
sometimes  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  zinc  is  added.  After 
drying,  the  surface  is  rubbed  down  with  pumice  stone, 
colored  to  rei^resent  marble,  and  polished  with  Tripoli  and 
olive  oil.  Ai'tificial  scagliola  Avork  is  largely  composed  of 
gypsum. 

There  are  several  methods  of  hardening  gypsum.  One  of 
the  oldest  consists  in  mixing  the  burnt  gypsiim  with  lime- 
water  or  a  solution  of  gum  arable.  Another,  yielding  very 
good  results,  is  to  mix  the  gypsum  with  a  solution  of  20 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  109 

ounces  of  alum  in  6  pounds  of  water  ;  this  plaster  hardens 
completely  in  15  to  30  minutes,  and  is  largely  used  under 
the  name  of  marble  cement.  Parian  cement  is  gypsum 
hardened  by  means  of  borax,  1  jjart  borax  being  dissolved  in 
9  iDarts  of  water,  and  the  gypsum  treated  with  the  solution. 
Still  better  results  are  obtained  by  the  addition  to  this  solu- 
tion of  1  part  of  cream  of  tartar. 

The  hardening  of  gypsum  with  a  water-glass  solution  is 
found  difficult,  and  no  better  results  are  obtained  than  with 
ordinary  gyj)sum.  Fissot  obtains  artificial  stone  from  gyp- 
sum by  burning  and  immersions  in  water,  fii-st  for  half  a 
minute,  after  which  it  is  exposed  to  the  air  and  again  for  two 
to  three  minutes,  when  the  block  appears  as  a  hardened  stone. 
It  would  seem  from  this  method  that  the  augmentation  in 
hardness  is  due  to  a  new  crystalization.  Hardened  gypsum, 
treated  with  stearic  acid  or  with  paraffine,  and  polished, 
much  resembles  meerschaum  ;  the  resemblance  may  be  in- 
creased by  a  coloring  solution  of  gamboge  and  dragon's 
blood,  to  impart  a  faint  red-yellow  tint.  The  cheaj)  artificial 
meerschaum  pipes  are  manufactured  by  this  method. 

Poisons. 

Many  of  the  substances  used  in  the  arts  are  highly  jioison- 
ous.  Indeed,  some  of  the  most  virulent  jjoisons  are  em- 
jjloyed  in  very  common  operations.  Thus  arsenic  is  used  for 
coloring  brass  ;  the  strong  acids  are  used  in  every  machine 
shop  and  foundry,  and  even  prussic  acid  may  be  occasionally 
produced  during  the  employment  of  ijrnssiate  of  potash. 
The  extremely  poisonous  cyanide  of  potassium  is  used  by 
every  photograi^her  and  electroplater.  Even  into  the  house- 
hold, poisons  too  frequently  find  their  way.  Our  matches  ar<^ 
tipped  with  a  strong  poison,  and  housekeepers  are  often  too 
ready  with  poison  for  the  destruction  of  vermin.  Phos- 
phorous, arsenic  and  corrosive  sublimate,  are  too  frecjuently 
thus  used.  Paris  green  also  Ave  have  actiially  seen  used  for 
the  destruction  of  cockroaches  in  pantries,  and  corrosive 
sublimate  is  in  common  use  as  a  poison  for  bed-bugs.  As  a 
bug  poison  it  is  generally  dissolved  in  alcohol  or  whiskey, 
and  the  odor  and  taste  have  sometimes  proved  a  strt)iig 
temptation  to  persons  who  did  not  fully  realize  its  dangerous 
character.  All  bottles  containing  such  mixtures  should 
^eref ore  be  carefully  labelled,  "POISON,"  in  large  letters, 


110  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

and  wnen  emptied  tliey  should  either  be  broken,  or  verj 
carefully  cleansed,  since  accidents  have  arisen  from  careless 
persons  pouring  drinkable  liquids  into  bottles  that  have 
contained  solutions  of  corrosive  siablimate,  which  solutions, 
after  drying  up  have  left  the  bottle  apparently  emjjty,  but  in 
reality  containing  an  amount  of  poison  sufficient  to  destroy 
several  lives. 

In  all  cases  where  poisons  have  been  swallowed,  the  proper 
course  is  first  to  neiitralize  the  deleterious  agent,  and  then  to 
procure  its  rejection  by  means  either  of  the  stomach-pum]) 
or  an  emetic.  The  stomach-pump  is,  of  course,  the  best  and 
most  expeditious  agent.  It  requires  but  a  few  moments  to 
insert  it  and  remove  the  contents  of  the  stomach  ;  fresh  sup- 
plies of  water  and  the  proper  antidotes  can  then  be  poured 
into  the  organ,  so  that  in  a  few  minutes  the  last  traces  of  the 
poison  can  be  removed'  But  as  the  stomach-pump  is  to  be 
found  in  the  possession  of  physicians  only,  reliance  must  in 
general  be  placed  uj^on  emetics,  of  Avhich  the  best  is,  im- 
questionably,  mustard — an  article  Avhich  is  to  be  found  in 
almost  every  household.  It  is  generally  conceded  by  physi- 
cians that  mustard  is  the  mildest,  most  raj^id,  and  most 
efficient  emetic  known.  It  is  prepared  for  use  as  folloAvs  : 
Take  about  a  jilump  dessert-spoonful  of  genuine  fioiir  of 
mustard  (if  it  be  mixed  with  wheat  Hour  or  turmeric,  more 
will  be  needed),  and  mix  it  rapidly  in  a  cup  with  water  to 
the  consistency  of  thin  gi'uel,  and  let  this  be  swallowed 
without  delay  or  hesitation.  In  a  very  few  seconds  the  con- 
tents of  the  stomach  will  be  ejected.  Before  the  emetic 
action  has  entirely  ceased,  a  little  lukewarm  water,  or  still 
b.^tter,  warm  milk,  should  be  forced  down.  This  will  be 
thrown  ofi'  immediately,  and  will  serve  to  rinse  out  the 
stomach  and  I'emove  the  last  traces  of  deleterious  matter. 

By  the  time  the  operation  of  the  emetic  has  ceased,  a  phy- 
sician will  probably  be  in  attendance,  and  to  his  care  the 
patient  should  be  at  once  confided. 

The  following  notes  on  special  poisons  will  prove  useful : 

Strong  Acid. — Wliere  nitric,  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric 
acid  has  been  swallowed,  it  is  well  to  administer  carbonate 
of  soda  before  giving  the  emetic. 

Oxalic  Acid. — This  acid  is  often  found  among  the  articles 
provided  for  household  use.  being  used  for  cleaning  brass 
and  various  metals,  as  well  as  for  removing  stains  of  ink  and 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  Ill 

iron  mould.  In  former  times  it  was  used  for  cleaning  boot 
tops  and  for  some  other  purposes.  In  appearance  it  re- 
sembles epsom  salts  so  closely  that  even  experienced  chemists 
might  be  deceived,  if  it  were  not  for  the  taste,  for  while  the 
acid  is  intensely  sour  the  salts  are  as  intensely  bitter. 

The  proper  atjtidote  to  oxalic  acid  is  some  form  of  lime, 
and  the  best  method  of  administering  it  is  to  mix  finely 
pulverized  chalk  with  water  to  the  consistency  of  cream  and 
swallow  it.  It  is  a  singular  fact  that  when  oxalic  acid  is 
largely  diluted  with  water,  it  acts  very  rajiidly  and  energeti- 
cally, destroying  life  almost  with  the  rapidity  of  prussic 
acid.  Hence  to  administer  soapy  water,  or  any  other  veiy 
diluted  remedy,  Avould  be  almost  fatal.  And  yet  this  course 
was  actually  recommended  by  a  jpojDular  scientific  journal. 

Prussic  Acid. — As  this  is  one  of  the  most  rapid  of  all 
poisons  in  its  action,  prompt  and  energetic  measures  are  de- 
manded. Cold  aflfusion  to  the  head  and  spine  has  been  found 
the  most  efficacious  mode  of  treatment.  Internal  remedies 
apiDear  to  be  of  no  service.  The  vapor  of  ammonia  may  be 
caiitiously  ai^plied  to  the  nostrils,  and  stimulating  liniments 
by  friction  to  the  chest  and  abdomen,  but  unless  the  dose  is 
small,  and  the  patient  is  seen  early,  there  can  be  little  hope 
of  benefit  from  any  treatment.  Certain  chemical  substances 
(cyanides)  from  which  prussic  acid  is  slowly  evolved  by  the 
action  of  the  air,  are  used  in  electro-plating  and  in  photo- 
graphy. These  substances  are  themselves  very  strong  poisons, 
and  if  accidentally  swallowed  they  cause  death  with  such 
rapidity  that  there  is  scarcely  any  time  to  apply  any  remedies. 
Green  copperas  (sulphate  of  iron)  dissolved  in  water  and  ad- 
ministered would  decompose  and  neutralize  the  poison,  after 
which  the  directions  given  for  prussic  acid  should  be  followed. 
Wlien  poisoning  occurs  from  breathing  the  vajjors  arising 
from  these  salts,  it  is  caused  by  prussic  acid,  and  should  be 
treated  accordingly. 

Arsenic — Paris  Green. — By  arsenic  is  generally  meant  tha 
white  oxide  of  the  metal  arsenic.  It  is  also  known  as  arsenious 
acid.  Paris  green  is  well  known  and  owes  its  deadly  proper- 
ties to  arsenic.  In  all  cases  in  which  poisonous  doses  of 
arsenic  have  been  swallowed,  our  great  dependance  must  be 
placed  upon  emetics  and  purgatives.  Persons  who  take 
arsenic  upon  a  full  stomach  frequently  escape  its  effects,  and 
therefore  it  is  always  well  to  give  copious  draughts  of  milk, 


112  THE  WOEKSHOP  COMPANION. 

or,  if  more  convenient,  raw  eggs,  beaten  up.  Then,  as  soon 
as  possible,  administer  an  emetic  (mustard  is  as  good  as  any) 
and  keep  iip  its  action  by  giving  milk  during  the  intervals 
of  the  paroxysms  of  vomiting.  When  the  stomach  no  longer 
rejects  what  is  swallowed,  give  a  good  dose  of  castor  oil. 

Corrosive  Sublimate. — When  coiTosive  sublimate  has  l>een 
swallowed,  the  first  thing  to  be  done  is,  if  possible,  to  get 
rid  of  it,  either  by  means  of  emetics  or  the  stomach-i)ump. 
If  the  poison  has  been  taken  on  a  full  stomach,  an  emetic  or 
the  piamji  is  the  first  thing  in  order  ;  if  the  stomach  be  empty, 
it  will  be  better  to  administer,  in  the  first  place,  as  much 
white  of  egg,  or  milk,  or  mixture  of  both,  as  the  patient  can 
be  made  to  swallow,  and  immediately  afterwards  give  an 
emetic.  The  white  of  eggs  is  the  great  antidote  for  corrosive 
sublimate,  but  it  is  of  no  use  Avhere  the  poison  has  been  ab- 
sorbed into  the  system,  and  if,  after  administering  Avhite  of 
eggs,  we  neglect  to  i^rocure  its  rejection,  the  compound  that 
is  formed  may  be  destroyed  by  the  action  of  the  gastric  juice, 
and  left  free  to  act  with  all  its  original  virulence. 

Pliospltorous. — There  is  no  efficient  antidote  or  remedy  for 
poisoning  by  phosphoroiis.  Taylor  recommends  the  admin- 
istration of  emetics,  and  of  albuminous  or  mucilaginous 
drinks,  holding  hydrate  of  magnesia  suspended.  The  exhibi- 
tion of  oil  Avould  be  decidedly  injiirious,  as  this  dissolves  and 
tends  to  diffuse  the  poison.  Saline  purgatives  should  there- 
fore be  jjreferred. 

Opium. — ^TV^hen  a  poisonous  dose  of  ojoium  has  been  taken, 
the  first  object  should  be  to  remove  the  jjoison,  and  this  mitst 
frequently  be  accomplished  by  the  stomach-pumi),  as  emetics 
are  of  little  service  when  the  patient  has  lost  the  power  of 
swallowing.  Dashing  cold  water  on  the  head,  chest,  and 
spine,  has  been  adopted  with  great  success  ;  in  the  treatment 
of  infants,  the  i^lunging  of  the  body  into  a  warm  bath,  and 
suddenly  removing  it  from  the  water  into  the  cold  air,  has 
been  found  a  most  eflfectnal  method  of  rousing  them.  Severe 
whipping  on  the  jjalms  of  the  hands  and  soles  of  the  feet  or 
the  back  lias  also  been  successfully  employed.  A  common 
])lan  for  rousing  an  adult  is  to  keeiJ  him  in  continual  motion, 
by  making  him  walk  between  two  assistants.  Above  all  things, 
the  tendency  to  fall  into  a  state  of  lethargy  must  be  iirevented. 
A  strong  decoction  of  cofifee  has  been  frequently  employed  as 
a  stimulant  to  promote  recovery,  and  ai)parently  with  benefit. 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  113 

Sin/chnine. — When  this  jaoison  has  been  absorbed  and  con- 
veyed into  the  blood  there  is  no  known  antidote  to  its  action. 
But  if  spasms  have  not  ah'eady  set  in  so  as  to  close  the  jaws, 
we  should,  by  the  stomach-pump  or  by  emetics,  endeavor  to 
remove  the  poison.  In  a  case  in  which  six  grains  of  strychnine 
were  taken,  the  life  of  the  person  appears  to  have  been  saved 
by  the  early  use  of  the  stomach-pumia.  It  has  been  supposed 
that  emetics  would  not  act  in  these  cases  ;  but  this  is  an 
error  based  on  imperfect  observation.  In  one  case  a  man 
took  three  grains  of  strychnine,  dissolved  in  rectified  spirits 
and  diluted  sulphuric  acid.  He  went  to  bed  and  slejit  for 
about  an  hour  and  a  half,  when  he  awoke  in  a  spasm,  utter- 
ing loud  cries,  which  alarmed  the  household.  Free  vomiting 
was  brought  on  by  the  use  of  emetics,  and  this,  combined 
with  other  treatment,  led  to  his  recovery.  The  first  step, 
therefore,  in  every  case,  shoiild  be  to  induce  vomiting. 

Ivy  Poiaouiitg. — The  best  remedy  for  ivy  poisoning  is  said 
to  be  sweet  spirits  of  nitre.  Bathe  the  parts  atFected  freely  with 
this  fluid  three  or  four  times  during  the  day,  and  the  next 
morning  scarcely  any  trace  of  poison  will  be  foimd.  If  the 
blisters  be  broken,  so  ate  to  allow  the  spirits  to  penetrate  the 
cuticle,  a  single  api)lication  will  be  sufficient. 

Sdtigs. — Extract  the  sting,  which  is  always  left  behind  by 
bees,  and  bathe  the  parts  with  cold  water,  or  apply  a  good 
poultice  of  common  clay  mud.  Liquid  ammonia  mixed  either 
with  the  water  or  the  mud,  will  prove  of  service.  All  lini- 
ments which  require  rubbing  are  bad,  as  tending  to  irritate 
the  part  and  dift'use  the  poison.  Above  all,  avoid  scratching 
the  wound. 

Polishing  Powders. 

Nothing  is  more  necessary  to  the  successful  use  of  polish^ 
ing  powder  than  equality  in  the  grain.  Fine  dust  clogs  the 
action  of  coarse  grinding  jjowders,  and  jirevents  them  from 
cutting  with  rapidity  the  object  to  be  ground  ;  coarse  parti- 
cles mixed  with  fine  polishing  powder  scratch  the  article  to 
be  polished,  and  render  grinding  and  polishing  necessary 
again.  To  secure  fineness  and  uniformity  no  process  equals 
that  of  elutriation,  which  is  thus  performed  :  Suppose  it 
were  desired  to  separate  the  ordinary  flour  of  emery  into 
three  different  degrees  of  fineness.  Take  three  vessels  (such  as 
tin  pails   or  glass  jars)  and  mix  the   emery  with   a  large 


114  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

qiiantity  of  wnter — say  a  qiiart  of  water  to  1^  oz.  of  emery. 
8tir  the  mixture  until  the  emery  is  thoroughly  diflfused 
through  the  liquid,  and  allow  to  stand  five  minutes.  By  this 
time  all  the  hea\der  particles  will  have  settled,  and  on  pour- 
ing the  fluid  into  a  second  jar  only  the  finer  jjortion  wiD  be 
carried  over.  80  continue  to  wash  the  first  residuum  until 
nearly  all  the  jjarticles  have  subsided  at  the  end  of  five 
minutes,  and  the  water  is  left  comparatively  clear.  You  will 
now  have  the  coarse  portion.  No.  1,  by  itself. 

So,  from  the  sediment  collected  from  the  washings  of  No.  1, 
you  may  collect  a  portion.  No.  2,  having  a  second  degree  of 
coarseness.  The  last  and  finest  will  be  obtained  by  letting 
the  final  washings  stand  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  pouring  off 
the  liquid  and  allowing  it  to  settle. 

The  jDrincipal  polishing  powders  are  chalk  or  whiting, 
crocus  or  rouge,  emery,  oilstone  powder,  and  putty  or  tutty, 
which  latter  consists  chiefly  of  oxide  of  tin.  Other  powders, 
such  as  tripoli,  bath-brick,  sand,  etc.,  are  rarely  used  for  the 
finer  kinds  of  work.  Emery  is  so  well  known  that  it  does 
not  need  description. 

Chalk  or  Whiting. — Chalk  is  a  native  carbonate  of  lime, 
consisting  of  the  remains  of  minute  creatures  known  as /br- 
aminife)-a,  and  when  simply  scraped  or  crushed  under  a 
hammer  or  runner,  it  is  sometimes  used  for  polishing  such 
Si  -L  substances  as  bone,  ivory,  etc.  As  it  contains  jjarticles 
of  silica  of  varying  size,  it  cuts  freely,  but  is  apt  to  scratch. 
To  remove  the  gritty  jjarticles,  the  chalk  is  ground,  and  the 
finer  parts  separated  by  washing.  It  then  becomes  whiting, 
which  is  generally  sold  in  lumps.  "SMiitiug  has  very  jjoor 
cutting  qualities,  and  it  is  therefore  used  chiefly  as  phtte 
powder  for  cleaning  gold,  silver,  glass,  etc. ,  and  for  absorb- 
ing grease  from  metals  which  have  been  polished  bv  other 
means. 

Prepared  Chalk. — This  is  a  manufactured  article,  pre- 
pared by  adding  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda  to  a  solution 
of  chloride  of  calcium  (both  cheai?  salts),  so  long  as  a  precip- 
itate is  thrown  down.  The  solutions  should  be  carefully 
filtered  through  paper  before  being  mixed,  and  diist  should 
be  rigorously  excluded.  The  white  powder  which  falls 
down  is  carljonate  of  lime,  or  chalk,  and  when  carefully 
washed  and  dried,  it  forms  a  most  excellent  jjolishing  powder 
for  the  softer  metals.     The  particles  are  almost  impalpable, 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  115 

but  seem  to  be  crystalliue,  for  they  polish  quickly  and 
smoothly,  though  they  seem  to  wear  away  the  material  so 
little  that  its  form  or  sharpness  is  not  injured  to  any  per- 
ceptible degree. 

Crocua  or  Rouge. — These  articles  are  manufactured  at 
Liverpool,  by  persons  who  make  it  their  sole  occupation,  in 
the  following  manner  : 

They  take  crystals  of  sulphate  of  ii-on  (green  vitriol  or 
copperas),  immediately  from  the  crystallizing  vessels,  in  the 
copperas  works  there,  so  as  to  have  them  as  clean  as  possible  ; 
and  instantly  put  them  into  crucibles  or  cast  iron  pots,  and 
expose  them  to  heat,  without  suffering  the  smallest  jiarticle 
of  dust  to  get  in,  which  would  have  a  tendency  to  scratch 
the  articles  to  be  i^olished.  Those  portions  which  are  least 
calcined  and  are  of  a  scarlet  color,  are  fit  to  make  rouge  for 
polishing  gold  or  silver,  while  those  which  are  calcined  or 
have  become  red-purple  or  bluish-purple,  form  crocus  fit  for 
polishing  brass  or  steel.  Of  these,  the  bluish-jjuriile  colored 
parts  are  the  hardest,  and  are  found  nearest  to  the  bottom  of 
the  vessels,  and  consequently  have  been  exposed  to  the 
greatest  degree  of  heat. 

Mr.  Andrew  Ross's  mode  of  preparing  Oxide  of  Iron.^ 
Dissolve  crystals  of  sulphate  of  iron  in  water ;  filter  the 
solution  to  separate  some  particles  of  silex  which  are  gen- 
erally present,  and  sometimes  are  abundant ;  then  precipitate 
from  this  filtered  solution  the  protoxitle  of  iron,  by  the  addi- 
tion of  a  saturated  solution  of  soda,  Avhich  must  also  be 
filtered.  This  grey  oxide  is  to  be  repeatedly  washed  and 
then  di'ied  ;  put  it  in  this  state  into  a  crucible,  and  very 
gradually  raise  it  to  a  dull  red  heat ;  then  pour  it  into  a 
clean  metal  or  earthen  dish,  and  Avhile  cooling  it  will  absorb 
oxygen  from  the  atmosphere,  and  acquire  a  beautiful  dark 
red  color.  In  this  state  it  is  fit  for  polishing  the  softer 
metals,  as  silver  and  gold,  but  will  scarcely  make  any  impres- 
sion on  hardened  steel  or  glass.  For  these  latter  purposes  I 
discovered  that  it  is  the  black  oxide  that  affected  the  polish 
(and  this  gives  to  the  red  oxide  a  purple  hue,  which  is  used 
as  the  criterion  of  its  cutting  quality  in  ordinary),  therefore 
for  polishing  the  harder  materials  the  oxide  must  be  heated 
to  a  bright  red,  and  kept  in  that  state  until  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  it  is  converted  into  black  oxide  to  give  the  mass 
a  deep  purple  hue  when  exposed  to  the  atmosphere.     I  have 


116  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

converted  the  whole  into  black  oxide ;  but  this  is  liable  to 
scratch,  and  does  not  work  so  pleasantly  as  when  mixed  with 
the  softer  material.  The  powder  must  now  be  levigated 
with  a  soft  wrought  iron  spatula,  upon  a  soft  iron  slal),  and 
afterwards  washed  in  a  very  weak  solution  of  gam  arable,  as 
recommended  by  Dr.  Green  in  his  jiaper  on  specula.  The 
oxide  prepared  in  this  manner  is  almost  impalpable,  and 
free  from  all  extraneous  matter,  and  has  the  requisite  quality 
in  an  eminent  degree  for  i^olishing  steel,  glass,  the  softer 
gems,  etc. 

Lo7'd  Ross's  Mode  of  preparing  the  Peroxide  of  Iran. — 
"I  prepare  the  peroxide  of  iron  by  precipitation  with  water 
of  ammonia  from  a  pure  dilute  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron  ; 
the  precipitate  is  washed,  pressed  in  a  screw  press  till  nearly 
dry,  and  exposed  to  a  heat  which  in  the  dark  appears  a  dull 
low  red.  The  only  points  of  importance  are,  that  the  sul- 
phate of  iron  should  be  pure,  that  the  water  of  ammonia 
should  be  decidedly  in  excess,  and  that  the  heat  should 
not  exceed  that  I  have  described.  The  color  will  be  a  bright 
crimson  inclining  to  yellow.  I  have  tried  both  soda  and 
potash,  pure,  instead  of  water  of  ammonia,  biit  after  washing 
with  some  degi-ee  of  care,  a  trace  of  the  alkali  still  remained, 
and  the  peroxide  was  of  an  ochrey  color  till  overheated,  and 
did  not  jjolish  properly. " 

Oilstone  Powder: — The  Turkey  oilstone  can  hardly  be  con- 
sidered as  a  hone  slate,  having  nothing  of  a  lamellar  or  schis- 
tose aijpearance.  As  a  whetstone  it  surpasses  every  other 
known  substance,  and  possesses,  in  an  eminent  degree,  the 
property  of  abrading  the  hardest  steel,  and  is,  at  the  same 
time,  of  so  compact  and  close  a  nature  as  to  resist  the 
pressure  necessary  for  sharpening  a  graver  or  other  small 
instrument  of  that  description.  Little  more  is  known  of  its 
natural  history  than  that  it  is  found  in  the  interior  of  Asia 
Minor,  and  brought  down  to  Smyrna  for  sale.  The  white 
and  black  varieties  of  Turkey  oilstone  differ  but  little  in 
their  general  characters  ;  the  black  is,  however,  somewhat 
harder,  and  is  imported  in  larger  pieces  than  the  white. 

Fragments  of  oilstone,  when  pulverized,  sifted  and  washed, 
are  much  in  request  by  mechanicians.  This  abrasive  is 
generally  preferred  for  grinding  together  those  fittings  of 
mathematical  instruments  and  machinery,  which  are  made 
wholly  or  in  part  of  brass  or  gun  metal,  for  oilstone  being 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  117 

softer  and  more  pulverulent  than  emery,  is  less  liable  to  be- 
Bome  embedded  in  the  metal  than  emery,  which  latter  is  then 
apt  contiunally  to  grind,  and  ultimately  damage  the  accuracy 
of  the  fittings  of  brass  works.  In  modern  practice  it  is  iisual, 
however,  as  far  as  possible,  to  discard  the  grinding  together 
of  siirfaces,  with  the  view  of  producing  accuracy  of  form,  or 
precision  of  contact. 

Oilstone  powder  is  i^referred  to  pumice-stone  powder  for 
polishing  superior  brass  works,  and  it  is  also  used  by  the 
watchmaker  on  rubbers  of  pewter  in  polishing  steel. 

Piitnice-stojie  Ponider. — Pumice-stone  is  a  volcanic  jjroduct, 
and  is  obtained  principally  from  the  Camjjo  Bianco,  one  of 
the  Lipari  islands,  which  is  entirely  composed  of  this  sub- 
stance. It  is  extensively  employed  in  various  branches  of  the 
arts,  and  particularly  in  the  state  of  powder,  for  ijolishing 
the  various  articles  of  cut  glass  ;  it  is  also  extensively  used 
in  dressing  leather,  and  in  grinding  and  polishing  the  surface 
of  metallic;  plates,  ecc. 

Pumice-stone  is  giwuiut  or  crushed  under  a  runner,  and 
sifted,  and  in  this  state  it  i«  used  for  brass  and  other  metal 
works,  and  also  for  japarmed,  varnished  and  painted  goods, 
for  which  latter  purposes  it  is  generally  ajDplied  on  woolen 
cloths  with  water. 

Putti/  Poicder  is  the  pulverized  oxide  of  tin,  or  generally 
of  tin  and  lead  mixed  in  varioiis.  proportions.  The  process 
of  manufacture  is  alike  in  all  cases — the  metal  is  oxidized  ia 
an  iron  muffle,  or  a  rectangular  box,  close  on  all  sides, 
excejit  a  sqiTare  hole  in  the  front  side.  The  retort  is  sur- 
rounded by  tire,  and  kept  at  a  red  heat,  so  that  its  contents 
are  partially  ignited,  and  they  are  continually  stirred  to 
expose  fresh  portions  to  the  heated  air  ;  the  jDrocess  is  com- 
plete when  the  fluid  metal  entii-ely  disappears,  and  the 
upper  i^art  of  the  oxide  then  produced,  sparkles  somewhat 
like  i^articles  of  incandescent  charcoal.  The  oxide  is  then 
removed  with  ladles,  and  spread  over  the  bottom  of  large 
iron  cooling  pans  and  allowed  to  cool.  The  lumj)s  of  oxide 
which  are  as  hard  as  marble,  are  then  selected  from  the 
mass  and  ground  dry  under  the  runner  ;  the  putty  powder 
is  afterwards  carefully  sifted  through  lawn. 

As  a  criterion  of  quality  it  may  be  said  that  the  whitest 
putty  powder  is  the  j^urest,  provided  it  be  heavy.  Some  of 
the  eommon  kinds  are  brown  and  yellow,  while  others,  horn 


118  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

the  intentional  admixture  of  a  little  ivory  black,  are  known 
as  g7-ey  putty.  The  pure  white  putty  which  is  used  by  mar- 
ble workers,  oi^ticians  and  some  others,  is  the  smoothest  and 
most  cutting  ;  it  should  consist  of  the  oxide  of  tin  alone,  but 
to  lessen  the  difficulty  of  manufacture,  a  veiy  little  lead  (the 
linings  of  tea  chests),  or  else  an  alloy  called  shruff  (pre- 
pared in  ingots  by  the  pewterers)  is  added  to  assist  the 
oxidation. 

The  putty  powder  of  commerce  of  good  fair  quality,  is 
made  of  about  equal  parts  of  tin  and  lead,  or  tin  and  shruflf ; 
the  common  dark  colored  kinds  are  prepared  of  lead  only, 
but  these  are  much  harsher  to  the  touch,  and  altogether 
inferior. 

Perhajis  the  most  extensive  use  of  putty  powder,  is  in  glass 
and  marble  works,  but  the  best  kind  serves  admirably  as 
plate  powder,  and  for  the  general  purposes  of  polishing. 

Putty  powder  for  line  optical  puri:)Oses  is  prepared  by 
Mr.  A.  Ross  by  the  following  method,  which  is  the  result  of 
many  experiments.  Metallic  tin  is  dissolved  in  nitro-muriatic 
acid,  and  precij^itated  from  the  filtered  solution  by  liquid 
ammonia,  both  fluids  being  largely  diluted  with  water.  The 
peroxide  of  tin  is  then  washed  in  abundance  of  water,  col- 
lected in  a  cloth  filter,  and  squeezed  as  dry  as  possible  in  a 
piece  of  new  clean  linen  ;  the  mass  is  now  subjected  to 
pressure  in  a  screw-iJi'ess,  or  between  lever  boards,  to  make  it 
as  dry  as  possible.  When  the  lump  thus  i:)roduced  has  been 
broken  in  pieces  and  di'ied  in  the  air,  it  is  finally  levigated 
Avhile  dry  on  a  plate  of  glass  with  an  ii'on  spatula,  and  after- 
wards exposed  in  a  crucible  to  a  low  white  heat. 

Before  the  peroxide  has  been  heated,  or  while  it  is  in  the 
levigated  hydrous  state,  the  putty  jDowder  j)ossesses  but  little 
cutting  quality,  as  under  the  microscope,  the  particles  then 
ajipear  to  have  no  determined  form,  or  to  be  amorphous, 
and,  on  being  wetted,  to  resume  the  gelatinous  condition  of 
the  hydrous  j^recipitate,  so  as  to  be  useless  for  j^olishing  ; 
whereas,  when  the  powder  is  heated,  to  render  it  anhydroits, 
most  of  the  particles  take  their  natural  form,  that  of  lamellar 
aystals,  and  act  with  far  more  energy  (yet  without  scratch- 
ing) than  any  of  the  ordinary  polishing  powders.  The  whole 
mass  requires  to  be  Avashed  or  elutriated  in  the  usual  manner 
after  having  been  heated,  in  order  to  separate  the  coarser 
particles. 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  119 

Mr.  Ross  usually  adds  a  little  crocus  to  the  putty  powder 
by  way  of  coloring  matter,  as  it  is  theu  easier  to  learn  the 
quantity  of  powder  that  remains  on  the  i^olishing  tool,  and 
it  may  be  added  that  this  is  the  polishing  j^owder  emjiloyed 
by  Mr.  Ross  in  making  his  improved  achromatic  object- 
glasses  for  astronomical  telescopes. 

Vienna  Lime. — Vienna  lime  and  alcohol  give  a  beautiful 
polish  to  iron  or  steel.  Select  the  soft  pieces  of  lime,  such 
as  will  be  easily  crushed  by  the  thumb  and  finger,  as  they 
are  the  most  free  from  gritty  ijarticles.  Apply  with  a  cork, 
piece  of  soft  pine  wood,  leather,  chamois,  etc. 

Resins. 

The  resins  are  so  frequently  employed  in  the  arts  that  a 
knowledge  of  the  action  of  different  solvents  ujion  them  is  of 
great  value. 

Dr.  Sac,  of  Neuenberg,  Switzerland,  has  made  an  extensive 
inquiry  into  the  nature  of  different  resins.  The  following 
results,  as  obtained  by  him,  are  given  in  Dingler's  Pob/- 
technic  Journal  : — The  resins  spoken  of  are  copal,  amber, 
dammar,  common  resins,  shellac,  elemi,  sandarach  and 
mastic.     All  these  resins  can  be  reduced  to  powder. 

The  following  will  become  pasty  before  melting  :  Amber, 
shellac,  elemi,  sandarach  and  mastic  ;  the  others  will  become 
liquid  at  once. 

In  boiling  water  common  resin  will  form  a  semi-fluid  mass  ; 
dammar,  shellac,  elemi  and  mastic  will  become  sticky  ;  while 
copal,  amber  and  sandarach  will  remain  unchanged. 

Dammar  and  amber  do  not  dissolve  in  alcohol ;  copal  be- 
comes pasty  ;  elemi  dissolves  with  difficulty,  while  resin, 
shellac,  sandarach  and  mastic  dissolve  easily. 

Acetic  acid  makes  common  resin  swell ;  on  all  the  others 
it  has  no  effect. 

Caustic  soda  dissolves  shellac  tcudily  ;  resin  partly  ;  but 
has  no  influence  on  the  others. 

Amber  and  shellac  do  not  dissolve  in  sulphide  of  carbon  ; 
cojjal  becomes  soft  and  expands  ;  elemi,  sandarach  and  mastic 
dissolve  slowly  ;  while  resin  and  dammar  dissolve  easily. 

Oil  of  turpentine  dissolves  neither  amber  nor  shellac,  but 
swells  copal ;  dissolves  dammar,  resin,  elemi  and  sandarach 
easily,  and  mastic  very  easily. 

Benzol  does  not  dissolve  coj)al,  amber  and  shellac,   but 


120  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

does  elemi  and  sandarach  to  a  limited  extent ;  wliile  dammar, 
resin  and  mastic  offer  no  difficulty. 

Petroleum  ether  has  no  effect  on  copal,  amber  and  shellac  ; 
it  is  a  poor  solvent  for  resin,  elemi  and  sandarach,  and  a  good 
one  for  dammar  and  mastic. 

Concentrated  sulphuric  acid  dissolves  all  resins,  imparting 
to  them  a  dark  brown  color,  excepting  dammar,  which  takes 
a  brilliant  red  tint. 

Boiling  linseed  oil  has  no  effect  on  copal  and  amber ; 
shellac,  elemi  and  sandarach  dissolve  easily. 

Nitric  acid  imparts  to  elemi  a  dirty  yellow  color  ;  to  mastic 
and  sandarach  a  light  brown  ;  it  does  not  affect  the  others. 

Ammonia  is  indifferent  to  amber,  dammar,  shellac  (?)  and 
elemi  ;  coj^al,  sandarach  and  mastic  become  soft,  and  finally 
dissolve  ;  while  resin  will  dissolve  at  once. 

Saws. 

The  grand  secret  of  putting  any  saw  in  the  best  possible 
cutting  order,  consists  in  filing  the  teeth  at  a  given  angle  to 
cut  rapidly,  and  of  a  uniform  length,  so  that  the  points  Avill 
all  touch  a  straight-edged  riile  without  showing  a  variation 
of  a  hundredth  part  of  an  inch.  Besides  this,  there  should 
be  just  enough  set  in  the  teeth  to  cut  a  kerf  as  narow  as  it 
can  be  made,  and  at  the  same  time  allow  the  blade  to  work 
freely  without  pinching.  On  the  contrary,  the  kerf  must  not 
be  so  wide  as  to  permit  the  blade  to  rattle  when  in  motion. 
The  very  points  of  the  teeth  do  the  cutting.  If  one  tooth  is 
a  twentieth  of  an  inch  longer  than  two  or  three  on  each  side 
of  it,  the  long  tooth  will  be  required  to  do  so  much  more 
cutting  than  it  should,  that  the  sawing  cannot  l)e  done  well. 
Hence  the  saw  goes  jumping  along,  working  hard  and  cutting 
slowly.  If  one  tooth  is  longer  than  those  on  either  side  of 
it,  the  short  ones  do  not  cut,  although  the  points  may  be 
sharp  "Vhen  putting  a  cross-cut  saw  in  order,  it  will  pay 
well  to  dress  the  points  with  an  old  file,  and  afterwards 
shari^en  them  with  a  fine  whetstoua  Much  mechanical  skill 
is  requisite  to  i5ut  a  saw  in  j^rime  order.  One  careless  thrust 
with  a  file  will  shorten  the  point  of  a  tooth  so  much  that  it 
will  be  utterly  useless,  so  far  as  cutting  is  concerned.  The 
teeth  should  be  set  with  much  care,  and  the  filing  should  be 
done  with  great  accuracy.  If  the  teeth  are  uneven  at  the 
points  a  large  flat  file  should  be  secured  to  a  block  of  wood 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  121 

in  sncli  a  manner  tbat  the  very  points  only  may  be  jointed, 
so  that  the  cutting  edge  of  the  same  luay  be  in  a  complete 
line  or  circle.  Eveiy  tooth  shoiild  ciit  a  little  as  the  saw  is 
worked.  The  teetli  of  a  handsaw,  i^or  all  sorts  of  work, 
should  be  filed  Heaoiing,  or  at  an  angle  on  the  front  edge  ; 
while  the  back  edge^  may  be  filed  fieaming,  or  square  across 
the  blade.  The  bcot  way  to  file  a  circular  saw  for  cutting 
wood  across  the  griin,  is  to  dress  every  fifth  tooth  square 
across  and  about  oi?  9-twentietli  of  an  inch  shorter  than  tlie 
others,  which  shou' d  be  filed  fieaming  at  an  angle  of  al)uut 
forty  degrees. 

Sieves. 

It  is  often  desirable  to  sift  powders  into  different  degrees 
of  fineness,  and  very  fine  sieves  are  not  always  to  be  easily 
had.  Those  made' of  hair  and  wire  answer  well,  but  the 
finest  may  be  made  out  of  the  bolting  cloth  used  by  millers. 
It  may  be  sewed  over  a  hoop  of  tin  or  brass,  or  even  a  ring 
made  of  iron  wire,  or  a  piece  of  flexible  wood  bent  into  form 
may  answer  to  hold  the  cloth. 

Shellac. 

Shellac  or  lac  is  a  resinous  substance  which,  in  India, 
flows  from  certain  trees  in  the  form  of  lucid  tears,  in  conse- 
quence of  punctures  made  upon  their  branches  by  a  small 
insect. 

It  is  found  in  commerce  in  three  forms — stick  lac,  seed  lac 
and  sl/f'/ldc.  Stick  lac  is  the  substance  in  its  natural  state  in- 
vesting the  small  twigs  of  the  trees,  which  ai-e  generally 
broken  off'  in  collecting  it.  When  separated  from  the  twigs 
and  partially  cleansed  it  is  known  as  seed  lac.  Shellac  is  the 
seed  lac  after  it  has  been  melted,  purifled  and  formed  into 
thin  cakes. 

Shellac  is  very  apt  to  be  adulterated  with  common  resin, 
and  hence,  unless  when  a  pale  lacquer  is  required,  most 
artisans  prefer  seed  lau.  When  lac  is  mixed  with  a  little 
resin  and  colored  with  vermillion  or  ivory  black  it  forms 
sealing  wax. 

Shellac  is  soluble  in  alcohol  but  not  in  turpentine.  It  is 
also  sohible  in  alkaline  solutions,  including  ammonia.  A 
solution  of  borax  in  water  dissolves  it  readily,  and  the  result- 
ing solution  has  been  used  as  a  cement,  as  a  varnish,  and  as  «»• 


122  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

basis  for  indelible  ink.  It  is  mucli  used  by  hatters  as  an  in- 
soluble cement. 

Clarifying  Shellac  Solutions. — Much  trouble  is  generally  ex- 
jjerienced  iu  obtaining  clear  solutions  of  shellac.  If  a  mixture 
of  1  part  shellac  with  7  parts  of  alcohol  of  90  per  cent,  is 
heated  to  a  suitable  temperature,  it  quickly  clears,  but  as 
quickly  becomes  turbid  again  on  cooling.  The  only  practical 
method  of  freeing  the  solution  from  what  some  writers  call 
"wax,"  and  others  "fatty  acid,"  which  is  present  in  shellac 
in  the  projjortion  of  1  to  5  jier  cent.,  and  is  the  cause  of  the 
turbidity,  has  hitherto  been  the  tedious  25i'Ocess  of  repeated 
filtration.  M.  Peltz  recommends  the  following  method  : 
Shellac  1  part  is  dissolved  in  alcohol  8  parts,  and  allowed  to 
stand  for  a  few  hours.  Powdered  chalk  is  then  added  in 
quantity  equal  to  half  the  Aveight  of  shellac  in  the  solution, 
and  the  latter  is  heated  to  60°  R.  The  greater  i^ortion  of  the 
solution  clears  rajiidly,  and  the  remainder  may  be  clarified 
by  once  filtering.  Carbonate  of  magnesia  and  sulphate  of 
baryta  were  tried  in  the  same  way,  but  were  not  found  equally 
eificacious. 

Bleached  Shellac. — When  bleached  by  the  ordinary  process, 
shellac  affords  a  polish  for  light  woods,  etc.,  that  is  brittle 
and  liable  to  peel  off,  while  the  presence  of  a  trace  of  chlorine 
causes  metallic  inlaying  to  become  dim.  These  defects  may 
be  avoided  by  a  different  mode  of  bleaching,  namely,  by 
adding  fine  granulated  bone-black  to  the  solution  of  shellac 
in  90  per  cent,  alcohol,  until  a  thin,  jjasty  mass  is  formed, 
and  exijosing  this  for  several  days  to  direct  sunlight,  occa- 
sionally shaking  it  thoroughly  and  filtering  when  sufficiently 
bleached. 

Silver. 

Pure  silver  is  quite  soft,  and  is,  therefore,  generally  alloyea 
with  copi^er  to  harden  it. 

Silversmiths'  work,  after  having  been  filed  is  generally 
rubbed,  firstly,  with  a  lumj?  of  pumice-stone  and  water ; 
secondly,  with  a  slip  of  water-of-Ayr  stone  and  water ; 
thirdly,  a  revolving  brush  with  rottenstone  and  oil  ;  fourthly, 
an  old  black  worsted  stocking  with  oil  and  rottenstone,  and 
fifthly,  it  is  finished  with  the  hand  alone,  the  deep  black 
lustre  being  given  with  rouge  of  great  fineness.    The  corntra 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  123 

and  edges  are  often  burnished  with  a  steel  burnisher,  which 
is  lubricated  with  soap  aud  water  if  at  all. 

In  this  case  and  in  all  others  of  polishing  with  the  naked 
hand,  it  is  generally  foMnd  that  women  succeed  better  than 
men,  aud  that  some  few,  from  the  peculiar  texture  and  con- 
dition of  the  skin,  greatly  excel  in  the  art  of  polishing.  The 
skin  should  be  soft  and  very  slightly  moist,  as  the  polishing 
powder  then  attaches  itself  conveniently,  aud  there  is  just 
sufficient  adhesion  between  the  hand  and  work  to  make  the 
operation  proc*»ed  rapidly.  A  dry  hand  becomes  hard  and 
horny,  and  is  1'  «ble  to  scratch  the  work,  and  excess  of  moist- 
ure is  alsG  obj'  ctionable,  as  the  hand  is  then  too  slippery. 

The  plated  reflectors  for  light-houses  are  cleaned  with 
rouge,  which  is  dusted  on  from  a  muslin  bag,  and  rubbed 
over  them  with  a  clean  dry  wash-leather. 

A  thin  film  of  oxide  will  nevertheless  occasionally  form  on 
the  surface  of  the  reflector,  and  this  is  removed  with  a  piece 
of  leather,  with  rouge  moistened  with  spirits  of  wine,  which 
dissolves  the  oxide,  after  which  the  dry  rubber  is  applied  as 
above. 

Oxidized  Silver. — This  is  not  an  oxidization,  but  a  combi- 
nation with  sulphur  or  chlorine.  Sulphur,  soluble  sulphides, 
and  hydrosulphuric  acid  blacken  silver,  and  insoluble  silver 
salts,  and  i^articularly  the  chloride  of  silver,  rapidly  blackens 
'by  solar  light.  Add  four  or  five  thousandths  of  hydrosul- 
phate  of  ammonia,  or  of  quintisulphide  of  potassium,  to 
ordinary  water  at  a  temperature  of  160°  to  180°  Fahr.  When 
the  articles  are  dipped  into  this  solution  an  iridescent  coating 
of  silver  sulphide  covers  them,  which,  after  a  few  seconds 
more  in  the  liquid,  turns  blue-black.  Remove,  rinse,  scratch- 
brush,  and  burnish  when  desu'ed.  Use  the  solution  when 
freshly  i^rejiared,  or  the  prolonged  heat  will  i^recipitate  too 
much  sulphur,  and  the  dei^osit  will  be  wanting  in  adherence  ; 
besides,  the  oxidization  obtained  in  freshly-prej^ared  liquors 
is  always  brighter  and  blacker  than  that  produced  in  old 
solutions,  which  is  dull  and  grey.  If  the  coat  of  silver  is  too 
thin,  and  the  liquor  too  strong,  the  alkaline  sulphide  dissolves 
the  silver,  and  the  underlying  metal  appea^f.  In  this  case 
cleanse  and  silver  again,  aud  use  a  weaker  blacl  'iuing  sohi- 
tion.  Oxidized  parts  and  gilding  may  be  put  upon  the  same 
article  by  the  following  method  :  After  the  whole  surface  has 
been  gilt  certain  portions  are  covered  with  the  resist  varnish  ; 


124  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

silver  the  remainder.  Should  the  process  of  sUvering  by 
paste  and  cold  rubbing  be  employed,  the  gilding  should  be 
very  pale,  because  it  is  not  preserved,  and  is  deeply  reddened 
by  the  sulphur  liquor.  When  this  inconvenience  occurs 
from  a  too  concentrated  liquor,  it  is  partly  remedied  by 
rapidly  washing  the  article  in  a  tepid  solution  of  cyanide  of 
potassium. 

A  very  beautiful  effect  is  produced  upon  the  surface  of 
silver  articles,  technically  termed  oxidizing,  which  gives  the 
surface  an  appearance  of  polished  steel.  This  can  be  easily 
effected  by  taking  a  little  chloride  of  jalatinum,  heating  the 
solution  and  applying  it  to  the  silver  where  an  oxidized  sur- 
face is  required,  and  allowing  the  solution  to  dry  upon  the 
silver.  The  darkness  of  the  color  produced  varies  according 
to  the  strength  of  the  jilatinum  solution  from  a  light  steel 
gray  to  nearly  black.  The  effect  of  this  process,  when  com- 
bined with  what  is  termed  dead  work,  is  very  pretty,  and 
may  be  easily  ai^plied  to  medals,  and  similar  objects. 

The  high  appreciation  in  which  ornaments  in  oxidized 
silver  are  now  held,  renders  a  notice  of  the  following  pro- 
cesses interesting.  There  ai"e  two  distinct  shades  in  use — 
one  produced  by  a  chloride  and  which  has  a  brownish  tint, 
and  the  other  produced  by  sulijhur,  which  has  a  bluish-  black 
tint.  To  produce  the  former  it  is  necessary  to  wash  the 
article  with  a  solution  of  sal  ammoniac ;  a  much  more 
beaiTtiful  tint  may,  however,  be  obtained  by  emjiloying  a 
solution  coni2)Osed  of  equal  parts  of  sulphate  of  copper  and 
sal  ammoniac  in  vinegar.  The  fine  black  tint  may  be  pro- 
duced by  a  slightly  warm  solution  of  sulphuret  of  potassium 
or  sodium. 

The  chloride  of  jjlatinum  mentioned  above  is  easily  pre- 
pared as  follows  :  Take  1  part  nitric  acid  and  2  parts  hydro- 
chloric (muriatic)  acid  ;  mix  together  and  add  a  little 
platinum  ;  keep  the  whole  at  or  near  a  boiling  heat. ;  the 
metal  is  soon  dissolved,  forming  the  solution  requu-ed. 

Old  Silvering. — To  imitate  old  artistic  productions  made 
of  solid  silver,  the  groundwork  and  hollow  portions  not 
subject  to  friction  are  covered  with  a  blackisli-red  earthy 
coat,  the  parts  in  relief  remain  with  a  bright  lead  lustre. 
Mix  a  thin  paste  of  finely  powdered  plumbago  with  essence 
of  turpentine,  to  which  a  small  portion  of  red  ochre  may  be 
added  to  imitate  the  copper  tinge  of  certain  old  silverware  ; 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  125 

smear  this  all  over  the  articles.  After  drying,  gently  rub 
with  a  soft  brush,  and  the  reliefs  are  set  off  hj  cleaning  with 
a  rag  dipped  in  spirits  of  wine. 

To  give  the  old  silver  tinge  to  small  articles,  such  as 
buttons  and  rings,  throw  them  into  the  above  paste,  rub  in  a 
bag  with  a  large  quantity  of  dry  boxwood  sawdust  until  the 
desired  shade  is  obtained. 

Cleaning  Silver. — Silver  being  a  comparatively  soft  metal, 
should  never  be  rubbed  with  jiolishing  powders  capable  of 
cutting  or  grinding,  as  the  delicate  surface,  especially  if 
engraved  or  ornamented,  will  be  sure  to  have  the  delicate 
lines  and  work  injured.  In  cleaning  silver  there  are  but  two 
things  that  ever  require  to  be  removed — dirt  and  the  sulphuret 
of  silver.  The  latter  appears  as  a  coating  on  all  silver  articles 
exposed  to  the  air,  and  especially  on  silver  spoons  etc. ,  which 
have  come  in  contact  with  sulphur  or  the  yolk  of  eggs. 
Sulphiiret  or  sulphide  of  silver  is  soluble  in  several  salts, 
especially  cyanide  of  potassium,  hyposulphite  of  soda,  and 
several  salts  of  ammonia.  Therefore,  to  clean  silver  which 
has  been  blackened  with  sulphur,  the  best  plan  is  to  dissolve 
off  the  sulphide  by  means  of  some  of  the  chemicals  named. 

For  the  ordinary  jjurposes  of  cleansing  silver  the  best 
material  is  a  thin  paste  of  alcohol,  2  parts  ;  ammonia,  1  part ; 
and  whiting  enough  to  make  a  liquid  like  cream.  This 
should  be  smeared  or  painted  over  the  silver  and  allowed  to 
stand  until  dry.  If  then  brushed  off  with  a  very  line  brush 
the  silver  will  ajjpear  clear  and  bright.  The  alcohol  and 
ammonia  dissolve  all  dirt  and  sulphide,  which  are  then  ab- 
sorbed by  the  whiting  and  removed  with  it. 

Where  really  good  whiting,  that  is  to  say,  an  article  that  is 
soft  or  free  from  grit,  cannot  be  procured,  starch  may  be 
used. 

Ink  Stains,  To  Remove  from  Silver — The  tops  and  other 
portions  of  silver  inkstands  frequently  become  deeply  dis- 
colored with  ink,  which  is  difficult  to  remove  by  ordinary 
means.  It  may,  however,  be  completely  eradicated  by  making 
a  little  chloride  of  lime  into  a  paste  with  water,  and  riibbing 
it  upon  the  stains. 

To  Dissolve  the  Silver  off  old  Plated  Goods.— ISlix  1  oz.  of 
finely  powdered  saltpetre  with  10  oz.  sulphuric  acid,  and 
steep  the  goods  in  this  mixture.  If  diluted  with  water  it 
acts  on  copper  and  other  metals,  but  if  very  strong  it  dis 


126  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

solves  the  silver  only,  and  may  be  used  to  dissolve  silver  off 
l>lated  goods  without  affecting  the  other  metals. 

Silvering.  > 

Leather,  cloth,  wood  and  similar  materials  are  silvered 
by  processes  similar  to  those  used  for  gilding,  silver  leaf 
being  substituted  for  gold  leaf.  Metals  may  be  silvered 
either  by  brazing  a  thin  sheet  of  silver  to  the  surface,  or  by 
electro-j^lating.  Frequently,  however,  it  is  desired  to  lightly 
silver  a  metal  surface,  such  as  brass  or  coj^jjer,  so  as  to  malvc 
any  figures  engraved  thereon  appear  more  distinct.  Clot-k 
faces,  dials  and  the  scales  of  thermometers  and  baromett^rs 
are  cases  in  point,  and  if  the  surface  be  well  lacquered  with 
white  lacquer  after  being  silvered,  such  a  coating  is  very 
durable.  Silvering  fluids  or  powders  containing  mercury 
should  never  be  used  unless  the  articles  are  to  be  afterAvards 
exi^osed  to  a  red  heat  so  as  to  drive  off"  the  mercury.  A 
silvering  fluid  which  is  very  commonly  sold  to  hotisekeepers 
under  the  name  of  Nor^argent  or  Phtte  Renovatar,  consists 
merely  of  nitrate  of  mercury  or  quicksilver.  When  rubbed 
on  a  cojjper  cent  or  a  brass  stair-rod  it  gives  it  at  once  a 
bright  silvery  surface,  but  the  brightness  soon  fades  and  the 
article,  if  brass,  becomes  black  and  dirty,  while  if  it  should 
be  a  \>\e.ce  of  jjlated  wai*e  it  will  be  ruined.  Stair-rods  and 
similar  articles,  if  well  silvered  with  powder  No.  1,  and  then 
lacquered  with  good  lacquer,  will  present  a  white  silvery  ap- 
pearance for  a  long  time.  Plated  goods  should  be  re-coated 
by  the  electro-jilating  process. 

Silvei'ing  Powder. — 1.  Nitrate  of  silver,  30  grains  ;  com- 
mon salt,  30  grains  ;  cream  tartar,  200  grains.  Mix.  Moisten 
with  water  and  rub  on  the  article  with  wash  leather.  Gives 
a  white  silvery  appearance  to  brass,  coj^per,  etc. 

2.  Novargetit. — Add  common  salt  to  a  solution  of  nitrate 
of  silver  until  the  silver  has  all  been  precipitated.  Wash  the 
white  precipitate  or  chloride  of  silver  and  add  a  strong  solu- 
tion of  hyiJosulphite  of  soda  until  the  white  chloride  is 
dissolved.  Mix  the  resulting  clear  liquid  with  pipe-clay 
which  has  been  finely  jjowdered  and  thoroughly  Avashed. 

3.  1  oz.  of  nitrate  of  silver  dissolved  in  1  quart  of  rain 
or  distilled  water.  When  thoroughly  dissolved,  add  a  few 
crystals  of  hyposulphite  of  soda,  which  will  at  first  form  a 
brown  precipitate,  but  which  redissolves  if  sufficient  hypo- 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANIOJN.  127 

Rulpliite  has  been  emijloyed.  The  sohitiou  may  be  mscd  l)y 
simjjjly  dipping  a  sjionge  in  it,  and  cubbing  it  over  the  article 
to  be  coated.  A  solution  of  gold  may  be  made  and  used  in 
the  same  manner. 

4.  Silvering  Amakfam. — A  coating  of  silver,  heavier  than 
can  be  obtained  by  the  above,  may  be  given  by  the  follow- 
ing process:  Precipitate  silver  from  its  solution  in  nitric 
acid  by  means  of  copj^er.  Take  of  this  i^owder  ^  oz.  ;  common 
salt,  2  oz.  ;  sal  ammoniac,  2  oz. ;  and  corrosive  sublimate,  1 
drachm.  Make  into  a  paste  with  water.  Having  carefully 
cleaned  the  copper  surface  that  is  to  be  plated,  boil  it  in  a 
solution  of  tartar  and  alum,  rub  it  Avith  the  above  paste, 
heat  red  hot  and  then  polish. 

Size. 

The  size  used  for  filling  the  pores  of  plaster,  wood,  cloth, 
paper,  etc.,  for  the  jjurpose  of  prejjaring  it  to  receive  paint 
or  varnish,  is  usually  made  from  glue.  Where  large  quanti- 
ties are  used  the  size  is  obtained  in  barrels  from  the  glue 
factory,  and  as  the  trouble  and  expense  of  concentrating  it 
into  cakes  is  thiis  avoided,  it  may  be  obtained  at  a  very  cheap 
rate.  Size  may  be  made  by  any  one  from  clippings  of  skms, 
tendons,  etc.,  boiled  down  to  jelly  and  carefully  freed  from 
fat.  Very  fine  size  is  prepared  from  parchment  clippings. 
Where  size  is  made  from  glue  the  following  directions  will 
prove  useful  : 

Sizing  for  Window  Shades. — Stretch  the  muslin  well  upon 
the  frame.  Soak  over  night  one-half  pound  of  the  best  white 
glue  in  4  gallons  water  ;  in  the  morning  turn  it  oii"  and  boil 
the  glue.  It  must  be  very  thin.  Add  a  small  piece  of  castile 
soap  scraped  fine.  To  have  it  more  transparent  add  2  oz. 
powdered  alum.  It  must  be  put  on  quick,  while  warm. 
Gamboge  for  painting  shades  must  be  dissolved  in  alcohol; 
carmine  in  spirits  of  hartshorn. 

Size  for  Improving  Poor  Drawing  Paper)'. — Take  1  oz.  of 
white  glue,  1  oz.  of  white  soaj?,  and  \  oz.  of  alum.  Soak  the 
glue  and  the  soap  in  water  until  they  ajipear  like  jelly  ;  then 
simmer  in  1  quart  of  water  until  tlie  wliole  is  melted.  Add 
the  alum,  simmer  again  and  filter.     To  be  applied  hot. 

Oold  Size. — This  is  an  entirely  diiterent  article,  and  is  in 
reality  a  very  strong  drying  oil  coirjiv^d  io  ft'.;o:nbIe  gold,  and 
uflvHl  for  ceuieuti'.ig  gold  Ic^af  to  arHcL^s  that  are  to  be  gilt. 


128  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

To  prepare  it,  drying  or  boiled  oil  is  thickened  with  yellow 
ochre  or  calcined  re<l  ochre,  and  carefully  reduced  to  the 
utmost  smoothness  by  grinding.  It  is  thinned  with  oil  of 
turi^entine.     It  improves  by  age. 

Skins— Tanning  and  Curing. 

Curing  Fur  Skins. — The  following  are  the  directions  given 
in  the  "  Trajjper's  Guide,"  by  Newhouse,  an  experienced  trap- 
per and  hunter.  1.  As  soon  as  possible  after  the  animal  is 
dead,  attend  to  the  skinning  and  ciu'ing.  The  slightest  taint 
of  putrefaction  loosens  the  fur  and  destroys  the  value  of  the 
skin.  2.  Scrajie  off  all  superfluous  flesh  and  fat,  but  be 
careful  not  to  go  so  deep  as  to  cut  the  fibre  of  the  skin. 
3.  Never  dry  a  skin  by  the  fire  or  in  the  sun,  but  in  a  cool, 
shady  place,  sheltered  fi'om  rain.  If  you  use  a  barn  door  for 
a  stretcher,  nail  the  skin  on  the  insicfc  of  the  door.  4.  Never 
use  "preparations"  of  any  kind  in  curing  skins,  nor  even 
wash  them  in  water,  but  simj^ly  stretch  and  dry  them  as  they 
are  taken  from  the  animal.  In  drying  skins  it  is  important 
that  they  should  be  stretched  tight  like  a  drum-head. 

To  prejxtre  Sheep  S  kins  for  3Ia(s. — 1.  Make  a  strong  soap 
lather  with  hot  water  and  let  it  stand  till  cold  ;  wash  the 
fresh  skin  in  it,  carefully  squeezing  out  all  the  dirt  from  the 
wool ;  wash  it  in  cold  water  till  all  the  soap  is  taken  out. 
Dissolve  a  pound  each  of  salt  and  alum  in  2  gallons  of  hot 
water,  and  put  the  skin  into  a  tub  sufficient  to  cover  it ;  let 
it  soak  for  12  hours  and  hang  it  over  a  pole  to  drain.  AVhen 
well  drained,  stretch  it  carefully  on  a  board  to  dry,  and 
stretch  several  times  while  drying.  Before  it  is  qiiite  dry 
sprinkle  on  the  flesh  side  1  oz.  each  of  finely  pulverized  alum 
and  saltijetre,  rubbing  them  in  well.  Try  if  the  wool  lie  firm 
on  the  skin  ;  if  not,  let  it  remain  a  day  or  two,  then  rub  again 
Avith  alum  ;  fold  the  flesh  sides  together  and  hang  in  the 
shade  for  two  or  three  days,  turning  them  over  each  day  till 
quite  dry.  Scrape  the  flesh  side  with  a  blunt  J  nife  and  rub  it 
with  jjumice  or  rotten  stone.  Very  beautiful  mittens  can  be 
made  of  lambs'  skins  jjrepared  in  this  way. 

2.  The  following  process  has  been  found  to  succeed  very 
well  with  sheep  skins,  dog  skins  and  similar  hides  :  Tack 
the  skin  upon  a  board  with  the  flesh  side  out,  and  then  scrape 
with  a  blunt  knife  ;  next  rub  it  over  hard  with  pulverized 
chalk,  until  it  will  absorb  no  more.     Then  take  the  skin  off 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  129 

from  the  board  and  cover  it  with  pulverized  alum .  double 
half-way  over,  with  the  flesh  side  in  contact  ;  then  roll  tight 
together  and  keep  dry  for  three  days,  after  which  unfold  and 
stretch  it  again  on  a  board  or  floor,  and  dry  in  the  air,  and  it 
will  be  ready  for  use. 

Skins  of  R<ihhits,  Cats  and  small  Animals. — Lay  the  skin 
on  a  smooth  board,  the  fur  side  undermost,  and  fasten  it 
down  with  tinned  tacks.  Wash  it  over  first  with  a  solution 
of  salt ;  then  dissolve  2|  oz.  of  ahim  in  1  pint  of  warm  water, 
and  with  a  sponge  dipped  in  this  solution,  moisten  the  sur- 
face all  over  ;  repeat  this  every  now  and  then  for  three  days. 
WIk)^  the  skin  is  quite  dry  take  out  the  tacks,  and  rolling 
it  loosely  the  long  way,  the  hair  side  in,  draw  it  quickly 
backwards  and  forwards  through  a  large  smooth  ring  until 
it  is  quite  soft,  and  then  roll  it  in  the  contrary  way  of  the 
skin  and  repeat  the  operation.  Skins  prejiared  in  this  wa" 
are  useful  in  many  experiments,  and  they  make  good  glov  ,• 
and  chest  protectors. 

Stains. 

Stains  of  different  kinds  are  removed  either  by  dissolving 
the  oflensive  matter  out  of  the  material  which  it  has  soiled 
or  by  destroying  it.  Ordinary  washing  is  a  good  examjjle  of 
the  first  method  ;  the  removal  of  fruit  stains  by  means  of 
chloride  of  lime  illustrates  the  second.  Sometimes  it  is 
necessary  to  combine  both  methods.  In  practice  it  is  of 
course  necessary  to  avoid  the  use  of  any  solvent  or  bleaching 
agent  that  can  injure  the  material  from  which  the  stain  is  to 
be  removed.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  stains  which  most 
frequently  occur,  and  also  of  the  best  methods  of  removing 
them  : 

Acids. — Most  acids  produce  red  stains  in  all  black  or  blue 
colors  of  vegetable  origin.  Wliere  the  acid  has  not  been  so 
strong  as  to  injure  the  texture  of  the  fabric,  such  stains  may 
be  easily  removed  by  the  use  of  a  little  potash,  soda  or  am- 
monia. Nitric  acid,  however,  not  only  turns  red,  but  bleaches 
the  goods,  and  it  is  very  difficult  to  remove  stains  caused  by 
this  acid.  It  is  said  that  the  yellow  stains  formed  on  brown 
or  black  woolen  goods  l)y  nitric  acid  can  be  removed,  when 
freshly  formed,  by  moistening  them  rejieatedly  with  a  con- 
centrated solution  of  ]iermanganate  of  potash,  and  then 
rinsing  with  water.      Yellow  stains  on  the   hands   may  be 


130  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

treated  in  the  same  way,  and  tlie  dark  brown  coloration  pro- 
duced may  tlien  be  removed  by  treating  with  aqueous  solution 
of  sulphurous  acid. 

Aniline  Dyes. — A  solution  of  common  sodium  sulphite  will 
rapidly  remove  the  stains  of  rzost  of  the  aniline  dyes  from 
the  hands. 

Fruit  Stains. — Most  fruits  yield  juices  which,  owing  to  the 
acid  they  contain,  permanently  injure  the  tone  of  the  dye  ; 
but  the  greater  part  may  be  removed  without  leaving  a  stain, 
if  the  spot  be  rinsed  in  cold  water  in  which  a  few  drojjs  of 
aqua  ammonite  have  been  placed,  before  the  sj^ot  has  dried. 
Wine  stains  on  Avhite  materials  may  be  removed  by  rinsing 
with  cold  water,  applying  locally  a  weak  solution  of  chloride 
of  lime,  and  again  rinsing  in  an  abundance  of  water.  Some 
fruit  stains  yield  only  to  soaping  with  the  hand,  followed 
by  fumigation  with  sulphurous  acid  ;  but  the  latter  jjrocess 
is  inadmissible  with  certain  colored  stuffs.  If  delicate  colors 
are  injured  by  soapy  or  alkaline  matters,  the  stains  must  be 
treated  with  colorless  vinegar  of  moderate  strength. 

Grease. — 1.  Wliere  the  fabric  will  bear  it,  the  best  method 
of  removing  gi-ease  spots  is  simple  washing  with  soap  and 
water.     No  ordinary  grease  spot  will  resist  this. 

2.  Chalk,  fuller's-earth,  steatite  or  "  French  chalk. "  These 
should  be  merely  diffused  through  a  little  water  to  form  a 
thin  paste,  which  is  spread  upon  the  spot,  allowed  to  dry, 
and  then  brushed  out. 

3.  Ox-gall  and  yolk  of  egg,  which  have  the  property  of 
dissolving  fatty  bodies  without  affecting  prrce^jtibly  the 
texture  or  colors  of  cloth.  The  oxgall  should  be  purified,  to 
prevent  its  greenish  tint  from  degrading  the  brilliancy  of 
dyed  stuffs,  or  the  purity  of  whites.  Thus  prepared  it  is  the 
most  eflective  of  all  substances  known  for  removing  this  kind 
of  stains,  especially  for  woolen  cloths.  It  is  to  be  diffused 
through  its  own  bulk  of  water,  ajai^lied  to  the  spots,  rubbed 
well  into  them  with  the  hands  till  they  disajjpear,  after  which 
the  stuff  is  to  be  washed  with  soft  water. 

4.  The  volatile  oil  of  turpentine.  This  will  take  out  only 
recent  stains  ;  for  which  jjurpose  it  ought  to  be  previously 
purified  by  distillation  over  quicklime. 

5.  Benzine  or  essence  of  petroleum  is  commonly  used  for 
removing  grease  spots  ;  but  these  liquids  jjresent  the  incon- 
venience of  leaving,  in  most  cases,  a  brownish  mureola.     To 


THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION.  181 

avoid  this,  it  is  necessary,  whilst  the  fabric  is  still  saturated, 
and  immediately  the  stain  has  disaj^iDeared,  to  siarinkle  gyp- 
sum or  lycopodium  over  the  whole  of  the  moistened  surface. 
When  dry,  the  powder  is  brushed  away. 

5.  Balls  for  removing  grease  sjjots  are  made  as  follows  : 
Take  fuller's-earth,  free  from  all  gritty  matter  ;  mix  with  half 
a  i^ound  of  the  earth,  so  prejoared,  half  a  pound  of  soda,  as 
much  soaja,  and  eight  yolks  of  eggs  well  beaten  up  with  half 
a  pound  of  puriiied  ox-gall.  The  whole  must  be  triturated 
upon  a  porphyry  slab  ;  the  soda  with  the  soap  in  the  same 
manner  as  colors  are  ground,  mixing  in  gradually  the  eggs 
and  the  ox-gall  previously  beaten  together.  Incorj^orate  next 
the  soft  earth  by  slow  degrees,  till  a  uniform  thick  paste  be 
formed,  which  should  be  made  into  balls  or  cakes  of  a  con- 
venient size,  and  laid  out  to  dry.  A  little  of  this  detergent 
being  scrajjed  off  with  a  knife,  made  into  a  paste  with  water, 
and  applied  to  the  stain,  will  remove  it. 

Lik  and  Iron  Mould. — Fresh  ink  and  the  soluble  salts  of 
iron  produce  stains  which,  if  allowed  to  dry,  and  especially 
if  afterwards  the  material  has  been  washed,  are  difficult  to 
extract  without  injury  to  the  ground.  When  fresh,  such 
stains  yield  rajjidly  to  a  treatment  with  moistened  cream  of 
tartar,  aided  by  a  little  friction,  if  the  material  or  color  is 
delicate.  If  the  ground  be  white,  oxalic  acid,  employed  in 
the  form  of  a  concentrated  aqueous  solution,  Avill  effectually 
remove  fresh  iron  stains. 

A  concentrated  solution  of  pyrophosphate  of  soda  removes 
many  kinds  of  ink  from  delicate  fabrics  withoiat  altering  the 
coloring  matters  jsrinted  upon  the  tissues,  or  in  any  way 
injui-iug  them. 

Mildew. — Make  a  very  weak  solution  of  chloride  of  lime  in 
water  (about  a  heaped-up  teasi)oonful  to  a  quart  of  water) ; 
strain  it  carefully,  and  dip  the  spot  on  the  garment  into  it ; 
and  if  the  mildew  does  not  disappear  immediately,  lay  it  in 
the  sun  for  a  few  minutes,  or  dij?  it  again  into  the  solution. 
The  work  is  eflectually  and  speedily  done,  and  the  chloride 
of  lime  neither  rots  the  cloth  nor  removes  delicate  colors, 
when  sufficiently  diluted,  and  th3  articles  well  rinsed  after- 
ward in  clear  water. 

Another  method  is  to  wet  the  spot  in  lemon  juice,  then 
spread  over  it  soft  soap  and  chalk  mixed  together,  and  spread 
where  the  hottest  rays  of  the  sun  will  beat  upon  it  for  half 


132  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

an  hour  ;  if  not  entirely  removed  repeat  the  same.  Or  wet 
in  clear  lemon  juice  and  lay  in  the  sun ;  or  soak  for  an 
hour  or  two,  and  then  sj^read  in  the  sun. 

Nitrate  (^Silver. — Nitrate  of  silver,  it  will  be  remembered, 
is  the  base  of  most  of  the  so-called  indelible  inks  used  for 
marking  linen  in  almost  every  household.  Stains  or  marks 
of  any  kind  made  with  silver  solution  or  the  bath  solution  of 
photograjihers  may  be  promptly  removed  from  clothing  by 
simply  wetting  the  stain  or  mark  with  a  solution  of  bi- 
chloride of  mercuiy.  The  chemical  result  is  the  change  of 
the  black-looking  nitrate  of  silver  into  chloride  of  sUver, 
which  is  white  or  invisible  on  the  cloth.  Bichloride  of  mer- 
cury can  be  had  at  the  drug  stores.  It  is  slightly  soluble  in 
water,  is  a  rank  poison,  and  we  would  not  advise  anybody  to 
keep  it  about  one's  house. 

The  immediate  and  repeated  application  of  a  very  weak 
solution  of  cyanide  of  potassium  (accompanied  by  thorough 
rinsings  in  clean  water),  will  generally  remove  these  stains 
without  injury  to  the  colors. 

Paint. — Stains  of  oil-paint  may  oe  removed  vJth  bisulpliide 
of  carbon  ;  many  by  means  of  sjurits  of  turpentine  ;  if  dry 
and  old,  with  chloroform.  For  these  last,  as  well  as  for  tar- 
spots,  the  best  way  is  to  cover  them  with  olive  oil  or  butter. 
Wlien  the  paint  is  softened,  the  whole  may  be  removed  by 
treatment,  first,  with  spirits  of  turi^entine,  then  with  benzine. 

Tar. — Tar  and  pitch  produce  stains  easily  removed  by  suc- 
cessive aiijjlications  of  spirits  of  turpentine,  coal-tar  naphtha, 
and  benzine.  If  they  are  very  old  and  hard,  it  is  well  to 
soften  them  by  lightly  rubbing  with  a  i^ledget  of  wool 
dipped  in  good  olive  oil.  The  softened  mass  will  then  easily 
yield  to  the  action  of  the  other  solvents.  Resins,  varnisjies 
and  sealing  wax  may  be  removed  by  warming  and  applying 
strong  alcohol.  Care  must  always  be  taken  that,  in  rubbing 
the  material  to  remove  the  stains,  the  friction  shall  be  ap- 
plied the  way  of  the  stuff,  and  not  indifferently  backwards  and 
forwards. 

Steel— Working  and  Tempering. 

Most  workmen  find  themselves,  at  times,  compelled  to 
forge  and  temper  their  own  tools,  such  as  drills,  cold  chisels, 
etc.     The  following  hints  will  be  of  service  : 

Forging  Steel. — Beware  of  over-heating  the  piece  to  ba 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  133 

forged,  and  also  be  careful  that  the  fire  is  free  from  sulphur. 
Small  drills  are  easily  heated  in  the  flame  of  a  lamp  or 
candle  ;  a  Bunsen  burner  will  heat  sufficiently  quite  a  good 
sized  tool.  Charcoal  makes  the  best  fire  for  all  kinds  of  tools. 
If  you  are  compelled  to  use  common  bituminous  coal  let  the 
fire  burn  until  most  of  the  suli^hur  has  been  driven  off.  Do 
not  hammer  with  heavy  blows  after  the  steel  has  cooled.  By 
tajjping  it  lightly,  however,  until  it  becomes  black,  the  close- 
ness of  the  grain  is  increased. 

To  Restore  burnt  Cast  Steel. — Heat  it  to  a  bright  cherry  red 
and  quench  it  in  water.  Do  this  a  few  times  and  then  forge 
it  carefully,  and  it  will  be  nearly  as  good  as  before.  The 
various  recipes  for  mixtures  for  restoring  burnt  steel  are 
worthless. 

Hardening  and  Tempeinng  Steel. — Heat  the  steel  to  a  bright 
cherry  red  and  jilunge  it  in  water  that  has  been  thoroughly 
boiled  and  then  allowed  to  cool.  It  will  then  be  "as  hard  as 
fire  and  water  will  make  it,"  and  too  hard  for  anything 
except  hardened  bearings,  or  tools  for  cutting  and  drilling 
glass  and  very  hard  metals. 

Where  very  hard  tools  are  required,  as,  for  example,  for 
cutting  steel  or  glass,  mercury  is  the  best  liquid  for  harden- 
ing steel  tools.  The  best  steel,  when  forged  into  shape  and 
hardened  in  mercury,  will  cut  almost  anything.  We  have 
seen  articles  made  from  ordinary  steel,  which  have  been 
hardened  and  tempered  to  a  deej)  straw  color,  turned  with 
comparative  ease  with  cutting  tools,  from  good  tool  steel 
hardened  in  mercury. 

To  make  it  stand  Avork  without  breaking,  it  must  bo 
tempered.  To  do  this,  polish  the  surface  on  a  grindstone  or 
with  emery  paper,  so  that  any  change  in  the  color  of  the 
metal  may  be  easily  seen.  Then  heat  the  tool  until  the  cut- 
ting edge  shows  the  proper  color,  as  given  below.  Large 
drills  and  cold  chisels  are  hardened  and  tempered  at  one  opera- 
tion, the  cutting  edge  being  cooled  and  hardened  while  the 
upper  part  is  left  hot.  When  taken  from  the  water  the  heat 
from  the  shank  passes  towards  the  cutting  edge  and  brings 
it  to  the  right  degree  of  softness.  Small  drills  may  be  best 
tempered  in  the  flame  of  a  lamp.  A  spirit  lamp  is  beet, 
and  the  neatest  plan  is  to  heat  the  drill  a  short  distance 
from  the  point  and  allow  the  heat  to  flow  towards  the  cutting 
edge.     As  soon  as  the  right  color  is  seen  on  the  edge,  the 


550°      Dark  blue. 
560°      Full  blue. 


134  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

entire  tool  is  plunged  in  water  and  cooled.     In  this  way  the 
sliank  is  kept  soft  and  the  tool  is  not  so  apt  to  snap  off. 

The  following  are  the  degrees  of  heat  (Fahrenheit)  and 
corresponding  colors  to  Avhich  tools  for  different  purposes 
should  be  brought : 

Temperature.     Color.  Temper. 

430°      Very  faint  yellow.  \  Very  hard  ;  suitable  for  hammer 

450°      Pale  straw  color.      [  faces,  drills  for  stone,  etc. 

irrno      171  n      n  )  Hard  and  inelastic  ;  suitable  for 

470        Full  yellow.  (  ^^  ^^^  ^^^.^.       ^^^^^  ^^^ 

490°      Brown.  f  hard  metal,  etc. 

510°      Brown  with  purple  )  Suitable   for    tools   for    cutting 
sjjots.  vwood   and  soft  metals,  such  as 

538°      Purple.  )  jjlane  irons,  knives,  etc. 

For  tools  requiring  strong  cut- 
ting edges  without  extreme  hard- 
"  ness;  as  cold  chisels,  axes,  cutlery, 
etc. 

600°      ^'^ll^^l^'^l^''^- 1  Spring  temper  ;  saws,  swords. 

To  Temper  Steel  mi  one  Edge.  — Eed  hot  lead  is  an  excellent 
thing  in  which  to  heat  a  long  plate  of  steel  that  requires 
softening  or  temi^ering  on  one  edge.  The  steel  need  only  to 
be  heated  at  the  part  required,  and  there  is  little  danger  of 
the  metal  warping  or  springing.  By  giving  sufficient  time, 
thick  portions  may  be  heated  equally  with  thin  parts.  The 
ends  of  wire  springs  that  are  to  be  bent  or  riveted  may  be 
softened  for  that  purpose  by  this  i^rocess,  after  the  springs 
have  been  hardened  or  tempered. 

Blazing  Off. — Saws  and  springs  are  generally  hardened  in 
various  comi^ositions  of  oil,  suet,  wax  and  other  ingredients, 
which,  however,  lose  theii-  hardening  jjroperty  after  a  fe^v 
weeks  constant  use  ;  the  saws  are  heated  in  long  furnaces, 
and  then  immersed  horizontally  and  edgewise  in  a  long  trough 
containing  the  composition  ;  two  troughs  are  commonly  used, 
the  one  until  it  gets  too  warm,  then  the  other  for  a  period, 
and  so  on  alternately.  Part  of  the  composition  is  wiped  oil 
the  saws  with  a  piece  of  leather,  when  they  are  removed 
from  the  trough,  and  they  are  heated,  one  by  one,  over  a 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  135 

clear  coke  fire,  until  the  grease  inflames ;  this  ib  called 
"  blazing  oflf." 

The  composition  used  by  an  experienced  saw  maker  is  two 
pounds  of  suet  and  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  beeswax  to  every 
gallon  of  whale  oil ;  these  are  boiled  together,  and  will  serve 
for  thin  works  and  most  kinds  of  steel.  The  addition  of 
black  resin,  to  the  extent  of  about  one  pound  to  the  gallon, 
makes  it  serve  for  thicker  jsieces,  and  for  those  it  refused  to 
harden  before  ;  but  the  resin  should  be  added  with  judgment, 
or  the  works  will  become  too  hard  and  brittle.  The  compo- 
sition is  useless  when  it  has  been  constantly  employed  for 
about  a  month  ;  the  ijeriod  depends,  however,  on  the  extent 
to  which  it  is  used,  and  the  trough  should  be  thoroughly 
cleansed  out  before  new  mixture  is  placed  in  it. 

The  following  recipe  is  recommended  :  Twenty  gallons  of 
sjjermaceti  oil ;  twenty  pounds  of  beef  suet,  rendered  ;  one 
gallon  of  neatsfoot  oil ;  one  pound  of  pitch  ;  three  pounds 
of  black  resin. 

These  last  two  articles  must  be  previously  melted  together, 
and  then  added  to  the  other  ingredients  ;  when  the  whole 
must  be  heated  in  a  proper  iron  vessel,  with  a  close  cover 
fitted  to  it,  until  the  moisture  is  entirely  evaporated,  and  the 
comiDOsition  will  take  tire  on  a  flaming  body  being  presented 
to  its  surface,  but  which  must  be  instantly  extinguished 
again  by  putting  on  the  cover  of  the  vessel. 

Wheii  che  saws  are  wanted  to  be  rather  hard,  but  little  of 
the  grease  is  burned  ofi";  when  milder,  a  larger  portion  ; 
and  for  a  spring  temper,  the  whole  is  allowed  to  burn  away. 

When  the  work  is  thick,  or  irregularly  thick  and  thin,  as 
in  some  springs,  a  second  and  third  dose  is  burned  ofi",  to 
insure  equality  of  temi)er  at  all  parts  alike. 

Gun-lock  springs  are  sometimes  literally  fried  in  oil  for 
a  considerable  time  over  a  fire  in  an  iron  tray  ;  the  thick 
parts  are  then  sure  to  be  sufficiently  reduced,  and  the  thin 
parts  do  not  become  the  more  softened  from  the  continuance 
of  the  blazing  heat.  But  for  ordinary  steel  articles  which 
are  required  to  be  soft,  tough  and  springy,  the  usual  plan  is 
to  harden  and  then  dip  them  in  any  coarse  oil,  and  heat 
them  over  the  fire  until  the  oil  blazes. 

Springs  and  saws  appear  to  lose  their  elasticity,  after 
hardening  and  tempering,  from  the  reduction  and  friction 
they  undergo  in  grinding  and  polishing.   Toward  the  conclu- 


IM  THE  WOEKSHOP  COMPANION. 

sion  of  the  manufacture,  tlie  elasticity  of  the  saw  is  restored, 
principally  by  hammering,  and  partly  by  heating  it  over  a 
clear  coke  fii'e  to  a  straw  color  ;  the  tint  is  removed  by  very 
diluted  muriatic  acid,  after  which  the  saws  are  well  washed 
in  plain  water  and  dried. 

Welding  Steel.— As  we  have  ah'eady  stated  in  the  article  on 
Iron,  welding  is  in  reality  a  sj^ecies  of  autogenous  soldering. 
And,  as  in  soldering  or  brazing,  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the 
surfaces  that  are  to  be  united,  free  from  dirt  and  oxide,  so  in 
welding,  the  surfaces  must  be  perfectly  clean  or  the  joint  will 
be  imperfect.  In  welding  common  iron,  sand  is  the  flux 
generally  used.  When  it  is  required  to  weld  steel  to  iron, 
the  steel  must  be  heated  to  a  less  degree  than  the  iron,  as  it 
is  the  most  fusible.  The  surfaces  should  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  before  they  are  brought  together.  Sal  ammoniac 
cleans  the  dirt  from  the  steel,  and  borax  causes  the  oxide  to 
fuse  before  it  attains  that  heat  which  will  burn  the  steel  ; 
consequently,  a  mixture  of  these  two  substances  forms  one  of 
the  best  materials  for  welding. 

The  best  mode  of  prei^aring  this  mixture  is  as  follows  : 
Take  tmi  parts  of  borax  and  one  part  of  sal  ammoniac  and 
grind  iinnu  together.  Then  melt  them  together,  and  when 
cold  reduce  the  mixture  to  fine  powder,  and  jjreserve  in  a 
well-stopped  jar  or  bottle. 

To  Blue  Steel. — The  mode  employed  in  bluing  steel  is 
merely  to  subject  it  to  heat.  The  dark  blue  is  produced  at  a 
temperature  of  600°,  the  full  blue  at  500°,  and  the  blue  at 
550°.  The  steel  must  be  finely  polished  on  its  surface,  and 
then  exposed  to  a  uniform  degree  of  heat.  Accordingly, 
there  are  three  ways  of  coloring  ;  first,  by  a  flame  producing 
no  soot,  as  spirits  of  wine  ;  secondly,  by  a  hot  plate  of  iron  ; 
and  thirdly,  by  Avood  ashes.  As  a  very  regular  degree  of  heat 
is  necessary,  wood  ashes  for  fine  work  are  to  be  i^refei-red. 
The  work  must  be  covei'ed  over  with  them,  and  carefully 
v/atched  ;  when  the  color  is  sufiiciently  heightened,  the  ,.'ork 
is  perfect. 

To  Blue  Small  Steel  Articles. — Make  a  box  of  sheet  iron  ; 
fill  it  with  sand  and  subject  it  to  a  steady  heat.  The  articles 
to  be  blued  must  be  finished  and  well  polished.  Immerse 
the  articles  in  the  sand,  keeping  watch  of  them  until  they 
are  of  the  right  color,  when  they  should  be  taken  out  and 
immersed  in  oil. 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  137 

Sulphur. 

Siilpliur  or  brimstone  is  a  well-known  yellow  substance 
largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  matches,  gunpowder  and 
sulphuric  acid.  Aside  from  these  uses,  which  are  of  interest 
only  to  large  manufacturers,  sulphur  is  employed  for  bleach- 
ing, disinfecting,  making  moulds  for  plaster  casts,  and  as  a 
cement  for  fastening  iron  bars  in  stone  sockets. 

Sulphur,  when  burned,  produces  suli^hurous  acid,  a  gas 
which  destroys  most  vegetable  colors  and  the  germs  of  most 
diseases.  As  a  bleaching  agent  it  is  sometimes  to  be  preferred 
to  chlorine,  as  it  does  not  injure  the  fabrics  so  much.  The 
method  of  using  it  is  to  hang  the  articles  to  be  bleached  in 
a  large  box  or  closet  in  which  the  sulphur  is  afterwards 
burned.  The  easiest  way  to  burn  the  sulphur  is  to  dip 
heavy  brown  paper  in  melted  sulphur,  and  bum  the  matches 
thus  produced.  In  this  way  the  sulphur  is  exposed  to  the 
air  suflSciently  to  cause  it  to  continue  to  burn  when  once 
ignited.  Another  very  good  plan  is  to  place  the  sulphur  on 
a  block  of  iron  or  brick  which,  has  been  previously  heated  to 
above  the  melting  point  of  suliahur.  The  sulphur,  if  then 
ignited,  will  continue  to  burn  freely,  but  it  is  almost  im- 
possible to  get  a  cold  mass  of  sulphur  to  burn  freely. 

The  same  method  answers  for  disinfecting  rooms,  and 
sulphurous  acid  vapors  are  the  least  injurious  and  most  easily 
procured  of  all  our  disinfectants.  The  National  Board  of 
Health,  in  their  recent  "Instructions  for  Disinfection,"  say 
that  "  fumigation  with  sulj^hur  is  the  only  practicable  method 
for  disinfecting  the  house.  For  this  purpose  the  rooms  to 
be  disinfected  must  be  vacated.  Heavy  clothing,  blankets, 
bedding,  etc.,  shoixld  be  opened  and  exposed  during  the 
fumigation.  Close  the  rooms  as  tightly  as  possible,  ignite  the 
sulphur,  and  allow  the  room  to  remain  closed  for  twenty-four 
hours.  For  a  room  about  ten  feet  square  at  least  two  pounds  of 
sulphur  should  be  used  ;  for  larger  rooms,  proportionally  in- 
creased quantities. "  Of  course  in  making  aiTangements  for 
burning  the  sulphur  great  care  must  be  exercised  so  as  not  to 
set  the  floor  on  fire.  Safety  is  best  secured  by  placing  the 
burning  sulphur  over  a  tub  of  water  or  a  considerable  heap 
of  sand  or  soil. 

In  making  moulds  for  taking  plaster  casts,  the  sulphur 
must  be  rendered  plastic.  This  is  an  extraordinary  property 
possessed  by  this  material,  and  one  known  only  to  chemists 


138  THE  WOEKSHOP  COMPANION. 

and  experts.  "Wlien  sulpluir  is  melted  and  poured  into  water, 
instead  of  becoming  hard  it  remains  quite  soft  like  dough, 
and  in  this  state  it  may  be  pressed  into  the  most  minute 
crevices  of  a  medal  or  other  object,  so  as  to  take  a  perfect 
mould  of  it.  From  this  mould  plaster  casts  or  electrotypes 
may  be  taken.  After  a  short  time  the  suli^hur  returns  to  its 
original  hard,  yelloAV,  brittle  condition. 

As  a  cement  for  fastening  iron  rods  in  the  holes  sunk  in 
stones,  as  in  the  gratings  of  windows  and  the  iron  work  of 
fences,  sulphur  is  now  extensively  used  instead  of  lead.  To 
jjure  suliihur,  however,  thei*e  is  this  very  strong  objection  that 
it  is  exceedingly  brittle  and  is  readily  fractured,  and  even 
reduced  to  coarse  powder  by  sudden  changes  of  temperature. 
We  have  seen  a  huge  roll  of  sixlijhur  broken  simply  by  the 
heat  of  the  hand.  This  may  be  avoided,  in  a  measure,  by 
mixing  the  melted  sulphur  with  some  inert  powder  like  sand. 
Iron  filings  have  also  been  mixed  with  it  for  the  purpose. 

Tin. 

Tin  is  a  brilliant,  silvery -white  metal.  It  is  very  malleable, 
but  its  power  to  resist  tensile  strains  is  so  small  that  it  is  not 
very  ductile.  When  bent  it  emits  a  peculiar  crackling  sound, 
arising  from  the  destruction  of  cohesion  amongst  its  particles. 
When  a  bar  of  tin  is  rai:)idly  bent  backwards  and  forwards 
several  times  successively,  it  becomes  so  hot  that  it  cannot 
be  held  in  the  hand. 

Tin  is  acted  upon  by  caustic  alkalies  (potash  and  soda), 
but  resists  the  acids  of  fruit,  etc. ;  hence  its  use  for  coating 
iron  so  as  to  prevent  corrosion  and  rust.  Tin  j^late  is  sheet 
iron  which  has  been  coated  with  tin.  To  apply  the  tin  the 
iron  must  be  heated,  and  this  is  apt,  in  some  cases,  to  injure 
the  articles  to  be  tinned,  as  it  softens  the  iron,  or  in  other 
words  draws  its  temper.  The  process  described  under  the 
head  "Iron,"  page  70,  enables  us  to  avoid  this  difficulty. 

Tin  forms  alloys  with  various  metals,  those  of  lead  and 
copper  being  best  known.  That  with  lead  is  known  as  solder 
and  pewter  (see  under  these  heads);  that  with  copjier  is 
bronze,  gun  metal  or  "  comi^osition. " 

Tin  and  iron  may  be  fused  together  in  all  jaroportions, 
forming  apparently  homogeneous  alloys.  Berthier  describes 
one  containing  35  "1  per  cent,  of  tin,  and  another  containing 
50  per  cent,  of  tin,  both  being  very  brittle  and  capable  of 


THE  WOEKSHOP  COMPANION.  189 

being  reduced  to  an  impalpable  powder.  The  affinity  of  iron 
for  tin  is  also  well  illustrated  in  common  tin  plate,  wliich  is 
nothing  more  than  sheet  iron  superficially  combined  with 
tin,  to  which  a  further  quantity  adheres  without  being  in 
combination.  The  alloy  of  tin  and  ii'on  upon  the  plate,  how- 
ever, is  so  thin  that  it  can  easily  be  removed  by  mechanical 
friction,  and  the  amount  of  tin  thus  alloyed  is  probably  not 
much  larger  than  one-half  of  one  pev  cent.  Tin,  when  added 
to  ing  iron,  imparts  to  it  a  steel-like  texture  of  fine  grain  and 
great  hardness  without  very  great  brittleness.  Such  iron  is 
easily  fused,  and  gives  a  sound  like  a  bell.  Indeed,  in  the 
Great  International  Exhibition  of  1851,  there  was  a  large 
bell  of  cast  iron  stated  to  be  alloyed  with  a  small  proiDortion 
of  tin.  According  to  Karsten,  pig  iron  with  one  jDer  cent,  of 
tin  yields  a  somewhat  cold-short  wrought  iron  with  about 
0  19  per  cent,  of  tin.  Such  iron,  it  is  stated,  works  well 
under  the  hammer,  but  at  a  white  heat  white  vapors  escape. 
With  more  tin,  the  iron  in  welding  gave  much  waste  and 
produced  cold-short  iron,  with  a  fine,  white  and  dull  grain. 
For  specific  purposes,  however,  especially  where  great  hard- 
ness is  required,  iron  with  a  small  amount  of  tin,  not  exceed- 
ing 0'3  per  cent,  seems  to  be  well  adapted.  Sterling,  in 
England,  hardens  the  tojss  of  rails  with  tin,  and  according  to 
a  report  of  the  English  Commission  for  testing  iron  in  regard 
to  its  adaptability  for  railroad  purposes,  the  best  Dundyvan 
bar  iron,  if  alloyed  with  0"2'2  per  cent,  of  tin,  supported, 
without  breaking,  a  weight  of  23  "39  tons  to  the  square  inch. 
Ott  fused  wrought  iron  with  0  5  per  cent,  of  tin,  and  arrived 
at  results  similar  to  those  of  Karsten.  Whilst  at  a  welding 
heat  it  worked  very  well,  the  smith  stating  that  it  was  some 
of  the  toughest  iron  he  had  ever  worked.  The  grain  was 
found  to  be  fine  and  steel-like,  with  strong  lustre  and  bright 
color. 

Varnish. 

It  is  in  general  more  economical  to  buy  varnishes  than  to 
make  them  on  tha  small  scale.  Occasionally,  however,  our 
reatlers  may  find  themselves  in  a  situation  where  a  simjile 
recipe  for  a  good  varnish  will  prove  valuable.  We  give  a  few 
recipes  which  are  easily  followed,  and  which  wUl  undoubtedly 
prove  useful  in  special  cases. 

Basket   Ware^    Varnish  for. — The    following    varnish  for 


140  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

basket  vork  is  said  to  dry  rapidly,  to  possess  sufficient 
elasticity,  and  to  be  applicable  with  or  witbout  admixture  of 
color  :  Heat  375  grains  of  good  linseed  oil  on  a  sand  bath 
until  it  becomes  stringy,  and  a  drop  j^laced  on  a  cold, 
inclined  surface  does  not  run  ;  then  add  graduaDy  7,500 
grains  of  copal  oil  varnish,  or  any  other  copal  varnish.  As 
considerable  efferv^escence  takes  place,  a  large  vessel  is  neces- 
sary. The  desired  consistency  is  given  to  it,  when  cold,  by 
addition  of  oil  of  turj^entine. 

Black  Varnish  for  Optical  Work. — The  external  surfaces 
of  brass  and  iron  are  generally  blacked  or  bronzed  with 
compositions  given  under  the  head  of  lacquers.  The  insides 
of  the  tubes  of  telescopes  and  microscojjes  should  be  coated 
with  a  dead  black  varnish  so  as  to  absorb  the  light  and  pre- 
vent any  glare.  The  varnish  that  is  generally  used  for  this 
l^urpose  consists  of  lampblack,  made  liquid  by  means  of  a 
very  thin  solution  of  shellac  in  alcohol,  biit  such  varnish,  even 
when  laid  on  warm  metal,  is  very  apt  to  scale  off  and  thus 
produce  two  serious  evils— the  exjjosure  of  the  bright  metal- 
lic surface  and  the  dei^osit  of  specks  on  the  lenses.  It  will 
therefore  be  found  that  lamj^black,  carefully  gi'ound  in  tur- 
pentine, to  which  about  a  fifth  of  its  volume  of  gold  size  or 
boiled  linseed  oil  has  been  added,  will  adhere  much  more 
firmly.  The  metal  should  l)e  warm  when  the  varnish  is  ap- 
plied. Care  must  be  taken  not  to  use  too  much  gold  size, 
otherwise  the  effect  will  be  a  bright  black  instead  of  a  dead 
black. 

Black  Varnish  for  Cast  Iron. — 1.  For  those  objects  to 
which  it  is  aj^ijlicable  one  of  the  best  black  varnishes  is  ob- 
tained by  applying  boiled  linseed  oil  to  the  iron,  the  latter 
being  heated  to  a  temj^erature  that  will  just  char  or  blacken 
the  oil.  The  oil  seems  to  enter  into  the  pores  of  the  iron, 
and  after  such  an  application  the  metal  resists  rust  and  cor- 
rosive agents  very  jjerfectly. 

2.  Fuse  40  oz.  of  asphaltum  and  add  i  a  gallon  of  boiled 
linseed  oil,  6  oz.  red  lead,  6  oz.  litharge,  and  4  oz.  suli^hate 
of  zinc,  dried  and  powdered.  Boil  for  two  hours  and  mix  in 
8  oz.  fused  dark  amber  gum  and  a  pint  of  hot  linseed  oil, 
and  boil  again  for  two  hours  more.  Wlien  the  mass  has 
thickened  withdraw  the  heat  and  thin  down  with  a  gallon  of 
turpentine. 

(jrree?i  Varnish. — There  is  a  most   beautiful  transparent 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  141 

gi-een  varnish  employed  to  give  a  fine  glittering  color  to  gilt 
or  other  decorated  works.  As  the  preparation  of  this  varnish 
is  very  little  known,  an  account  of  it  may  in  all  i^robability 
IH-ove  of  interest  to  many  of  our  readers.  The  process  is  as 
follows  :  Grind  a  small  quantity  of  a  peculiar  pigment  called 
"Chinese  blue,"  along  with  about  double  the  quantity  of 
finely -powdered  chromate  of  potash,  and  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  copal  varnish  thinned  with  turpentine.  The  mixture  re- 
.;uires  the  most  elaborate  gi'inding  or  incorporating  of  its 
ingredients,  otherwise  it  will  not  be  transparent,  and  there- 
fore useless  for  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended.  The 
"tone"  of  the  color  may  be  varied  by  an  alteration  in  the 
proportion  of  the  ingredients.  A  preponderance  of  chromate 
of  potash  causes  a  yellowish  shade  in  the  green,  as  might 
have  been  expected,  and  vice  veisa  with  the  blue  under  the 
same  circumstances.  This  colored  varnish  will  produce  a 
very  striking  efiect  in  japanned  goods,  paper  hangings,  etc. , 
and  can  be  made  at  a  very  cheap  rate. 

Iron  Work,  Bright  Vmmish  for.— Dissolve  3  lbs.  of  resin  in 
10  pints  boiled  linseed  oil,  and  add  2  lbs.  of  turpentine. 

Map  Varnish. — Clear  Canada  balsam,  4  oz. ;  turpentine, 
8  oz.  Warm  gently  and  shake  until  dissolved.  Maps,  draw- 
ings, etc.,  which  are  to  be  varnished  with  this  solution, 
should  be  first  brushed  over  with  a  solution  of  isinglass  and 
allowed  to  dry  thoroughly. 

J/as^iC— Mastic,  6  oz. ;  turpentine,  1  quart.  Tough,  hard, 
brilliant  and  colorless.     Excellent  for  common  woodwork. 

3Ietals — Bright,  Varnish  for. — In  order  to  make  alcoholic 
varnish  adhere  more  fu-mly  to  polished  metallic  surfaces,  A. 
Morell  adds  one  part  of  pure  crystallized  boracic  acid  to  200 
parts  of  the  varnish.  Thus  prepared  it  adheres  so  firmly  to  the 
metal  that  it  cannot  be  scratched  off  with  the  finger  nail ;  it  ap- 
pears, in  fact,  like  a  glaze.  If  more  boracic  acid  is  added  than 
above  recommended  the  varnish  loses  its  intensity  of  color. 

Paintings,  Varnish  for. — A  good  varnish  can  be  made  as 
follows  :  Mastic,  six  ounces  ;  pure  turpentine,  one-half 
ounce  ;  camphor,  two  drachms  ;  spirits  of  turpentine,  nine 
ieen  ounces  ;  add  first  the  camphor  to  the  turpentine.  The 
mixture  is  made  in  a  water-bath,  and  when  the  solution  is 
effected,  add  the  mastic  and  the  spirits  of  turpentine  near 
the  end  of  the  operation,  then  filter  through  a  cotton  cloth. 
The  varnish  should  be  laid  on  very  carefully. 


1«  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

Bust,  Varnish  for  Preventing. — A  varnisli  for  this  purpose 
may  be  made  of  120  parts  resin,  180  sandarac,  50  gumlac. 
They  should  be  heated  gradually  until  melted,  and  thor- 
oughly mixed,  then  120  parts  turpentine  added,  and  sub- 
sequently, after  further  heating,  180  parts  rectified  alcohol. 
After  careful  filtration,  it  should  be  put  into  tightly-corked 
bottles. 

Shellac  Varnish. — ^Dissolve  good  shellac  or  seed  lac  in 
alcohol,  making  the  varnish  of  any  consistence  desired. 
Note. — Shellac  gives  a  pale  cinnamon  colored  varnish. 
Varnish  made  -with  seed  lac  is  deeper  colored  and  redder. 
If  colorless  varnish  is  desired  use  bleached  shellac,  an  article 
Avhich  is  to  be  had  at  most  drug  stores. 

Tortoise  Shell  Japan. — Take  good  linseed  oil,  one  gallon  ; 
amber,  one-half  isound  ;  boil  together  until  the  fluid  is  brown 
and  thick.  Then  strain  through  a  cloth  and  boil  again  until 
of  consistency  of  pitch,  when  it  is  fit  for  use.  Having  pre- 
pared this  varnish  well,  clean  the  article  to  be  japanned,  and 
then  brush  the  parts  over  with  vermillion  mixed  with  shellac 
varnish,  or  with  drying  oil  diluted  with  turjientine.  When 
this  coat  is  dry,  brush  the  whole  with  the  amber  varnish 
diluted  to  a  i^roper  consistency  with  turisentine,  and  then, 
when  set  firm,  put  the  article  into  a  hot  stove  to  undergo  heat 
for  as  long  a  time  as  required  to  j^roduce  the  desired  effect. 
In  some  instances  as  much  as  two  weeks  may  be  required, 
after  which  finish  in  an  annealing  oven. 

Turpentine  Varnish. — Clear  pale  resin,  51bs. ;  turpentine, 
7  lbs.     Dissolve  in  any  convenient  vessel. 

Varnish  for  Violins  and  similar  articles. — Sandarach,  6  oz. ; 
mastic,  3  oz. ;  turpentine  varnish,  one-half  pint ;  alcohol  1 
gallon.  Keep  in  a  tight  tin  can  in  a  warm  place  until  the 
gums  are  dissolved. 

Varnish  for  Bepjlacing  Turpentine  and  Linseed  Oil  Paints. — 
Fr.  Theis,  of  Bissendorf,  prepares  a  varnish  consisting  of  100 
parts  of  resin,  20  parts  of  crystallized  carbonate  of  soda,  and 
50  parts  of  water,  by  heating  these  substances  together  and 
mixing  them  with  a  solution  of  24  jsarts  of  strong  liquor 
ammonia  in  250  parts  of  water.  With  the  mass  thus  obtained 
the  pigments  are  levigated  without  the  addition  of  linseed 
oil  or  turpentine  ;  the  paint  dries  readily  without  the  aid  of 
a  drier  and  looks  veiy  well,  especially  when  varnished.  The 
paint  keeps  well,  even  under  water,  and  becomes  very  hard. 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.^  *  U3 

The  cost  is  said  to  be  about  one-third  that  of  ordinary  oil 
paints. 

Wfiite,  Hard  Varnish  for  Wood  or  Metal. — Mastic,  2  oz. ; 
sandarach,  8  oz. ;  elemi,  1  oz. ;  Strasbourg  or  Scio  turpentine, 
4  oz. ;  alcohol,  1  quart. 

White  Varnish  for  Paper,  Wood  or  Linen. — Sandarach, 
8  oz. ;  mastic,  2  oz. ;  Canada  balsam,  4  oz. ;  alcohol,  1  quart. 

White  Spirit  Varnish. — Eectified  spirit,  1  gallon  ;  gum 
sandarach,  2^  lbs.  Put  these  ingredients  into  a  tin  bottle, 
warm  gently  and  shake  till  dissolved.  Then  add  a  pint  of 
pale  turpentine  varnish. 

Wood,  Parisian  Varnish  for. — To  prepare  a  good  varnish 
for  fancy  woods,  dissolve  one  part  of  good  shellac  in  three  to 
four  parts  of  alcohol  of  92  per  cent,  in  a  water-bath,  and 
cautiously  add  distilled  water  until  a  curdy  mass  separates 
out,  which  is  collected  and  pressed  between  linen;  the  liquid 
is  filtered  through  paper,  all  the  alcohol  removed  by  distilla- 
tion from  the  water  bath,  and  the  resin  removed  and  dried  at 
lOO""  centigrade  until  it  ceases  to  lose  weight ;  it  is  then 
dissolved  in  double  its  weight  of  alcohol  of  at  least  96 
■per  cent. ,  and  the  solution  perfumed  with  lavender  oil. 

Wood — Stained,  Varnish  for. — A  solution  of  four  ounces  of 
sandarac,  one  ounce  gum  mastic,  and  four  ounces  shellac,  in 
one  pound  of  alcohol,  to  which  two  ounces  oil  of  turpentine 
is  added,  can  be  recommended  as  a  varnish  over  stained 
woods. 

Varnishing. 

Before  beginning  to  varnish,  it  is  necessary  that  tlie 
surface  to  which  it  is  to  be  ajiplied,  should  be  perfectly 
free  from  all  grease  and  smoke  stains,  for  it  will  be  found 
if  this  is  not  attended  to,  the  varnish  will  not  dry  hard. 
If  the  varnish  is  to  be  applied  to  old  articles,  it  is  necessary 
to  wash  them  very  carefully  with  soaj^  and  water  before  ap- 
plying it.  When  it  is  wished  that  the  varnish  should  dry 
qiiickly  and  hard,  it  is  necessary  to  be  careful  that  the  var- 
nish should  always  be  kept  as  long  a  time  as  possible  before 
being  used  ;  and  also  that  too  high  a  temjaerature  has  not 
been  used  in  manufacturing  the  varnish  employed.  It  ia 
likewise  customary,  when  it  can  be  done,  to  expose  the  article 
to  the  atmosphere  of  a  heated  room.  This  is  called  stoving 
it,  and  is  found  to  greatly  imi:)rove  the  appearance  of  tha 


144  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

work,  as  well  as  to  canse  the  varnish  to  dry  quickly.  After 
the  surface  is  varnished,  to  remove  all  the  marks  left  by  the 
brush,  it  is  usually  carefully  polished  with  finely-powdered 
pumice  stone  and  water.  Afterwards,  to  give  the  surface  the 
greatest  polish  it  is  capable  of  receiving,  it  is  rubbed  over 
with  a  clean  soft  rag,  on  the  surface  of  which  a  mixture  of 
very  finely  powdered  tripoli  and  oil  has  been  applied.  The 
surface  is  afterwards  cleaned  with  a  soft  rag  and  powdered 
starch,  and  the  last  polish  is  given  with  the  palm  of  the  hand. 
This  method  is,  however,  only  employed  when  those  varnishes 
are  used  which,  when  dry,  become  sufliciently  hard  to  admit 
of  it. 

A  good  surface  may  be  produced  on  unpainted  wood  by 
the  following  treatment  :  Glass-pa^jer  the  wood  thoroughly  as 
for  French  polishing,  size  it,  and  lay  on  a  coat  of  varnish, 
very  thin,  with  a  piece  of  sponge  or  wadding  covered  with  a 
piece  of  linen  rag.  When  dry,  rub  down  with  pumice  dust, 
and  apply  a  second  coat  of  varnish.  Three  or  four  coats 
should  produce  a  surface  almost  equal  to  French  polish,  if 
the  varnish  is  good  and  the  pumice  dust  be  well  applied 
between  each  coat.  The  use  of  a  sponge  or  wadding  instead 
of  a  brush  aids  in  preventing  the  streaky  appearance  usually 
caused  by  a  brush  in  the  hands  of  an  iinskilled  person. 

When  varnish  is  laid  on  a  piece  of  cold  furniture  or  a  cold 
carriage-body,  even  after  it  has  been  spread  evenly  and  with 
dispatch,  it  will  sometimes  "crawl"  and  roll  this  way  and 
that  way  as  if  it  were  a  liquid  possessing  vitality  and  the  j^ower 
of  locomotion.  It  is  sometimes  utterly  impossible  to  varnish 
an  article  at  all  satisfactorily  dui-ing  cold  weather  and  in  a 
cold  apartment.  In  cold  and  damjj  weather  a  carriage,  chair 
or  any  other  article  to  be  varnished  should  be  kejjt  in  a  clean 
and  warm  apartment  where  there  is  no  dust  flying,  until  the 
entire  Avoodwork  and  iron-work  have  been  warmed  through 
and  through,  to  a  temjierature  equal  to  that  of  summer  heat — 
say  eighty  degrees.  That  tenijjerature  should  be  maintained 
day  and  night.  If  a  fire  is  kejjt  fo]'  only  eight  or  ten  hours 
during  the  day,  the  furniture  will  be  cold,  even  in  a  Avarm 
paint-room.  Before  any  varnish  is  apjalied,  some  parts  of  the 
surface  which  may  have  been  handled  frequently,  should  be 
rubbed  with  a  woolen  cloth  dipped  in  spirits  of  turpentine, 
so  as  to  remove  any  greasy,  oleaginous  matter  which  may 
have  accumulated.     Table-beds,  backs  of  chairs,  and  fronts 


THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION.  145 

of  bureau  drawers  are  sometimes  so  thoroughly  glazed  over 
that  varnish  will  not  adhere  to  the  surface,  any  more  than 
water  will  lie  smoothly  on  recently  painted  casings.  The 
varnish  should  also  be  warm — not  hot — and  it  should  be 
spread  quickly  and  evenly.  As  soon  as  it  flows  from  the 
brush  readily  and  spreads  evenly,  and  before  it  commences 
to  set,  let  the  rubbing  or  brushing  cease.  One  can  always 
do  a  better  job  by  laying  on  a  coat  of  medium  heaviness, 
rather  than  a  very  light  coat  or  a  covering  so  heavy  that  the 
varnish  will  hang  down  in  ridges.  Varnish  must  be  of  the 
proper  consistency,  in  order  to  flow  just  right  and  to  set 
with  a  smooth  surface.  If  it  is  either  too  thick  or  too  thin 
one  cannot  do  a  \ieat  job. 

Wlien  it  is  wished  to  varnish  drawings,  engi-avings,  or 
other  jjaper  articles,  it  is  iisual  to  give  them  a  coat  of  size 
before  applying  the  varnish.  For  the  preparation  of  Size  see 
article  under  that  head. 

To  Restore  Spotted  Varnish. — If  the  vai'nish  has  been 
blistered  by  heat  or  corroded  by  strong  acids,  the  only 
remedy  is  to  scrape  or  sandpaper  the  article  and  revarnish. 
Spots  may  often  be  removed  by  the  following  process  :  Make 
a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  linseed  oil,  alcohol  and  turpentine, 
slightly  moisten  a  rag  Avith  it,  and  rub  the  spots  until  they 
disappear.  Then  polish  the  spot  with  ordinary  blotting 
liaper.  Varnish  injured  by  heat  can  hardly  be  restored  in 
any  other  way  than  by  removing  it  and  applying  a  fresh 
coat. 

Voltaic  Batteries. 

In  every  kind  of  battery  it  is  essential  that  the  connections 
be  bright,  and  that  the  metal  surfaces  which  are  to  be  united 
should  be  brought  together  under  considerable  pressure. 
Those  batteries  which  depend  for  contact  upon  light  springs, 
and  the  mere  placing  of  wires  in  holes,  lose  a  great  deal  of 
available  power.  The  surfaces  ought  invariably  to  be  filed 
bright  and  pressed  together  by  means  of  screws.  We  have 
frequently  seen  the  action  of  the  batteries  used  for  medical 
l^urposes  entirely  stopped  by  a  thin  film  of  oxide. 

The  zincs  also  should  always  be  thoroughly  amalgamated  to 
prevent  waste.  When  the  zincs  are  new  and  uncorroded, 
amalgamation  is  an  easy  process.  Dip  the  zincs  in  dilute 
Bulphuric  acid  (8  parts  water  and  1  of  acid),  and  rub  them 


148  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

with  mercury.  The  mercury  will  adhere  quite  readily  and 
render  the  entire  surface  brilliant  and  silvery.  But  when  the 
zincs  are  old  and  corroded  it  will  be  found  that  the  mercury 
does  not  adhere  to  some  parts.  In  such  cases  wash  the  sur- 
face of  the  zinc  with  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  mercuiy  and  it 
will  become  coated  with  amalgam.  Once  the  surface  is 
touched,  it  is  easy  to  add  as  much  mercury  as  may  be  desired 
by  simply  rubbing  on  the  liquid  metal. 

The  coating  of  mercury  adds  greatly  to  the  durability  of 
the  zincs,  as  when  so  prejjared  the  acid  Avill  not  act  on  them 
except  when  the  current  is  passing,  and  from  the  excellent 
condition  of  the  entire  surface  the  power  of  the  batteiy  is 
greatly  increased. 

Watch— Care  of. 

1.  Wind  your  watch  as  nearly  as  possible  at  same  hour 
every  day.  2.  Be  careful  that  the  key  is  in  good  condition,  as 
there  is  much  danger  of  injuring  the  works  when  the  key  is 
worn  or  cracked  ;  there  are  more  main  springs  and  chains 
broken  through  a  jerk  in  winding  than  from  any  other  cause, 
which  injury  will  sooner  or  later  be  the  result  if  the  key  be 
in  bad  order.  3.  As  all  metals  contract  by  cold  and  expand 
by  heat,  it  must  be  manifest  that  to  keep  the  watch  as  nearly 
as  possible  at  one  temiierature,  is  a  necessary  piece  of  atten- 
tion. 4.  KeeiJ  the  watch  as  constantly  as  possible  in  one 
position,  that  is,  if  it  hangs  by  day  let  it  hang  by  night, 
against  something  soft.  5.  The  hands  of  a  pocket  chronom- 
eter or  duplex  watch  should  never  be  set  backwards  ;  in  other 
watches  this  a  matter  of  no  consequence.  6.  The  glass 
should  never  be  opened  in  watches  which  set  and  I'egulate  at 
the  back.  One  or  two  directions  more  it  is  of  vital  importance 
that  you  bear  in  mind.  On  regulating  a  watch,  should  it  be 
fast,  move  the  regulator  a  trifle  towards  the  slow  ;  and  if 
going  slow,  do  the  reverse  ;  you  cannot  move  the  regulator 
too  slightly  or  too  gently  at  a  time,  and  the  only  inconven- 
ience that  can  arise  is  having  to  perform  the  operation  more 
than  once.  On  the  contrary,  if  you  move  the  regulator  too 
much  at  a  time,  you  will  be  as  far,  if  not  further  than  ever, 
from  attaining  your  object,  so  that  you  may  repeat  the  move- 
ment until  quite  tii'ed  and  disapi^ointed,  stoutly  blaming 
both  watch  and  watchmaker,  while  the  fault  is  entirely  your 
own.     Again,  you  cannot  be  tco  careful  in  resjiect  of  the 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  147 

nature  and  condition  of  your  watch-pocket ;  see  that  it  be 
made  of  something  soft  and  pliant,  such  as  wash-leather, 
which  is  the  best,  and  also  that  there  be  no  flue  or  nap  that 
may  be  torn  off  when  taking  the  watch  out  of  the  pocket. 
Cleanliness,  too,  is  as  needful  here  as  in  the  key  before  wind- 
ing ;  for,  if  there  be  dust  or  dirt  in  either  instance,  it  will, 
you  may  rely  upon  it,  work  its  Avay  into  the  watch,  as  well 
as  wear  away  the  engine-turning  of  the  case. 

Waterproofing. 

Porous  goods  are  made  waterproof  according  to  two  very 
distinct  systems.  According  to  the  first  the  articles  are  made 
absolutely  impervious  to  water  and  air  by  having  their  pores 
filled  up  with  some  oily  or  gummy  substance,  which  becomes 
stiflf  and  impenetrable.  Caoutchouc,  j^aints,  oils,  melted  wax, 
etc. ,  ai-e  of  this  kind.  The  other  system  consists  in  making 
the  fabric  repellent  to  water,  while  it  remains  quite  porous 
and  freely  admits  the  passage  of  air.  Goods  so  prepared 
will  resist  any  ordinary  rain,  and  we  have  seen  a  very  porous 
fabric  stretched  over  the  mouth  of  a  vessel  and  resist  the 
passage  of  water  one  or  two  inches  deep.  The  following 
recipes  have  been  tried  and  found  good.  Most  of  those  found 
in  the  recipe  books  are  worthless. 

To  Render  Leather'  Wate^-proof. — 1.  Melt  together  2  oz.  of 
Burgundy  pitch,  2  oz.  of  soft  wax,  2  oz.  of  turjientine,  and  1 
pint  of  raw  linseed  oil.     Lay  on  with  a  brush  while  warm. 

2.  Melt  3  oz.  lard  and  add  1  oz.  powdered  resin.  This 
mixture  remains  soft  at  ordinary  temj^eratures,  and  is  an  ex- 
cellent application  for  leather. 

Water-proof  Canvas  for  Corei-ing  Carta,  etc. — 9 J  gallons 
linseed  oil,  1  lb.  litharge,  1  lb.  umber,  boiled  together  for  24 
hours.  May  be  colored  with  any  paint.  Lay  on  with  a 
brush. 

To  Make  Sailcloth  Impervious  to  Watei',  and  yet  Pliant 
and  Durable. — Grind  6  lbs.  English  ochre  with  boiled  oil,  and 
add  1  lb.  of  black  j^aint,  which  mixture  forms  an  indifiei'ent 
black.  An  ounce  of  yellow  soajj,  dissolved  by  heat  in  half  a 
pint  of  water,  is  mixed  while  hot  with  the  paint.  This  com- 
position is  laid  upon  dry  canvas  as  stilf  as  can  conveniently 
be  done  with  the  brush.  Two  days  after,  a  second  coat  of 
ochre  and  black  paint  (without  any  soap)  is  laid  on,  and, 
allowing  this  coat  time  to  dry,  the  canvas  is  finished  with  a 


U8  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

coat  of  any  desirecl  color.  After  three  days  it  does  not  stick 
together  when  folded  up.  Tliis  is  the  formula  iised  in  the 
British  navy  yards,  and  it  has  given  excellent  results.  We 
have  seen  a  jjortable  boat  made  of  canvas  prepared  in  this 
way  and  stretched  on  a  skeleton  frame. 

Metallic  iSoap  for  Canvas. — The  following  is  highly  recom- 
mended as  a  cheap  and  simple  process  for  coating  canvas  for 
wagon  tops,  tents,  awnings,  etc.  It  renders  it  impermeable 
to  moisture,  without  making  it  stiff  and  liable  to  break. 
Soft  soap  is  to  be  dissolved  in  hot  water,  and  a  solution  of 
sulphate  of  iron  added.  The  sulphuric  acid  combines  with 
the  i^otash  of  the  soap,  and  the  oxide  of  iron  is  precij^itated 
with  the  fatty  acid  as  insoluble  iron  soap.  This  is  washed 
and  dried,  and  mixed  with  linseed  oil.  The  soap  prevents 
the  oil  from  getting  hard  and  cracking,  and  at  the  same  time 
water  has  no  effect  on  it. 

The  following  recipes  are  intended  to  be  ai^plied  to  woven 
fabrics,  which  they  leave  quite  pervious  to  air  but  capable 
of  resisting  water. 

1.  Apply  a  strong  solution  of  soap,  not  mere  soap  suds,  to 
the  wrong  side  of  the  cloth,  and  Avhen  dry  wash  the  other 
side  with  a  solution  of  alum. 

2.  The  following  recipe  is  siibstantially  the  same  as  the 
preceding,  but  if  carefully  followed  in  its  details  gives  better 
results  : 

Take  the  material  successively  through  baths  of  sulphate 
of  alumina,  of  soap  and  of  water  ;  then  dry  and  smother  or 
calender.  For  the  alumina  bath,  use  the  ordinary  neutral 
sulishate  of  alumina  of  commerce  (concentrated  alum  cake), 
dissolving  1  part  in  10  of  water,  which  is  easily  done  without 
the  ai3plication  of  heat.  The  soap  is  best  prepared  in  this 
manner  :  Boil  1  j^art  of  light  resin,  1  part  of  soda  crystals, 
and  10  of  Avater,  till  the  resin  is  dissolved  ;  salt  the  soap  out 
by  the  addition  of  one-third  part  of  common  salt  ;  dissolve 
this  soap  with  an  equal  amount  of  good  palm  oil  soap  (navy 
soap)  in  30  parts  of  watei*.  The  soap  bath  should  be  kept 
hot  while  the  goods  are  i^assing  through  it.  It  is  best  to  have 
three  vats  along  side  of  each  other,  and  by  a  special  arrange- 
ment to  keej)  the  goods  down  in  the  baths.  Special  care 
should  be  taken  to  have  the  fabric  thoroughly  soaked  in  the 
alumina  bath. 

3.  Drs.  Hager  and  Jacobsen  remark  that  auring  the  last 


THE  WORKSHOT-  COMPANION.  lid 

few  years  very  good  and  ct^^ap  waterproof  goods  of  this  de- 
Bcriiition  have  been  mannfactnred  in  Berlin,  which  they 
believe  is  effected  by  steeising  them  first  in  a  bath  of  sulphate 
of  alumina  and  of  copijer,  and  then  into  one  of  water-glass 
and  resin  soajj. 

Whitewash. 

The  process  of  whitewashing  is  known  by  various  names, 
such  as  "  calcimining. "  "  kalsomining,"  etc.,  most  of  them 
derived  evidently  from  the  latin  name  for  lime,  which  was 
the    principal  ingredient  of  all   the  older  forms  of  white- 

Professors  of  the  "  Ai't  of  Kalsomining"  affect  a  great 
deal  of  mystery,  but  the  process  is  very  simi^le.  It  consists 
simjily  in  making  a  whitewash  with  some  neutral  substance 
which  is  made  to  adhere  by  means  of  size  or  glue.  It  contains 
no  caustic  material  like  lime.  Several  substances  have  been 
used  with  good  results.  The  best  is  zinc  white.  It  gives  the 
most  brilliant  eliect  but  is  the  most  expensive  The  next  is 
Paris  white  or  sulphate  of  baryta.  This,  when  pure,  is  nearly 
equal  to  zinc  white,  but,  unfortunately,  common  whiting  is 
often  sold  for  it,  and  more  often  mixed  with  it.  It  is  not 
difficult,  however,  to  detect  common  whiting  either  when 
alone  or  mixed  with  Paris  white.  Wlien  vinegar,  or  better 
still,  spirits  of  salt,  is  poured  on  whiting,  it  foams  or  efifer- 
vosces,  but  produces  no  effect  on  Paris  white.  Good  whiting, 
however,  gives  very  fair  results  and  makes  a  far  better  finish 
than  common  lime  as  ordinarily  used.  When  well  made, 
however,  good  lime  whitewash  is  very  valuable  for  out-houses, 
and  places  where  it  is  desirable  to  introduce  a  certain  degree 
of  disinfecting  action.  One  of  the  best  recipes  for  lime 
whitewash  is  that  known  as  the  "  White  House  "  whitewash, 
and  sometimes  called  "  Treasury  Department*'  ivhitewash, 
from  the  fact  that  it  is  the  recipe  sent  out  by  thb  Lighthouse 
Board  of  the  Treasury  Department.  It  has  been  found,  by  ex- 
perience, to  answer  on  wood,  brick  and  stone,  nearly  as  well 
as  oil  paint,  and  is  much  cheaper.  Slake  one-half  bushel 
unslaked  lime  with  boiling  water,  keeping  it  covered  during 
the  process.  Strain  it  and  add  a  peck  of  salt,  dissolved  in 
w  arm  water  ;  three  i^ounds  ground  rice,  put  in  boiling  water 
and  boiled  to  a  thin  paste  ;  one-half  pound  powdered  Spanish 
whiting  and  a  pound  of  clear  glue,  dissolved  in  warm  water  ; 


150  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

mix  these  well  together  and  let  the  mixture  stand  for  several 
days.  Keep  the  wash  thus  prepared  in  a  kettle  or  portable 
furnace,  and,  when  used,  put  it  on  as  hot  as  possible  with 
painters'  or  whitewash  brushes. 

Kalsomine,  as  distinguished  from  lime  whitewash,  is  best 
suited  for  the  interior  of  rooms  in  the  dwelling  house.  To 
kalsomine  a  good  sized  room  with  two  coats,  jjroceed  as 
follows  : 

Select  some  very  clear  colorless  glue  and  soak  i  lb.  in  water 
for  12  hours.  Then  boil  it,  taking  great  care  that  it  does  not 
burn,  and  this  is  best  done  by  setting  the  vessel  with  the  glue 
in  a  pan  of  water  over  the  fire.  When  comijletely  dissolved 
add  it  to  a  large  pail  of  hot  water,  and  into  any  desired 
quantity  of  this  stir  as  much  of  the  white  material  used  as 
will  make  a  cream.  The  quality  of  the  resulting  work  will 
depend  on  the  skill  of  the  operator,  but  we  may  remark  that 
it  is  easier  to  get  a  smooth  hard  finish  by  using  three  coats 
of  thin  wash  than  by  using  one  coat  of  thick.  If  you  have 
time  for  but  one  coat,  however,  you  must  give  it  body  enough, 
In  giving  more  than  one  coat  let  the  last  coat  contain  less 
glue  than  the  preceding  ones. 

Kalsomine,  such  as  we  have  described,  may  be  colored 
by  means  of  any  of  the  cheap  coloring  stuffs. 

The  following  is  recommended  as  a  good  kalsomining  fluid 
for  walls  :  White  glue,  1  pound  ;  white  2dnc,  10  i^ounds  ; 
Paris  white,  5  pounds  ;  water,  suflScient.  Soak  the  glue  over 
night  in  three  quarts  of  water,  then  add  as  much  water  again, 
and  heat  on  a  water  bath  till  the  glue  is  dissolved.  In  another 
pail  put  the  two  j)owders,  and  pour  on  hot  water,  stirring  all 
the  time,  until  the  liquid  appears  like  thick  milk.  Mingle 
the  two  liquids  together,  stir  thoroughly,  and  apply  to  the 
wall  with  a  whitewash  brush. 

It  is  often  desirable  to  "kill "  old  whitewash,  as  it  is  called, 
as  otherwise  it  would  be  impossible  to  get  new  whitewash 
or  imper  to  stick  to  the  walls.  After  scraping  and  washing 
off  all  lose  material  give  the  walls  a  thorough  washing  with 
a  solution  of  sulphate  of  zinc  (2  oz.  to  1  gallon  of  water). 
The  lime  will  be  changed  to  plaster  of  Paris,  and  the  zinc 
will  be  converted  into  zinc  white,  and  if  a  coat  of  kalsomine 
be  now  given  it  will  adhere  very  strongly  and  have  great 
feody. 

I 


THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION.  151 

Wood— Floors. 

The  followmg  method  of  staining  floors  in  oak  or  walnut 
colors  is  highly  commended  by  the  London  Furniture  Gazetle: 
Put  1  oz.  Vandyke  brown  in  oil,  3  oz.  pearlash,  and  2  drms. 
dragon's  blood,  into  an  earthenware  pan  or  large  pitcher  ; 
jjour  on  the  mixture  1  quart  of  boiling  water  ;  stir  with  a 
piece  of  wood.  The  stain  may  be  used  hot  or  cold.  The 
boards  should  be  smoothed  with  a  plane  and  glass-papered  ; 
fill  up  the  cracks  with  plaster  of  Paris  ;  the  brush  should  not 
be  rubbed  across  the  boards,  but  lengthwise.  Only  a  small 
piece  shoiild  be  done  at  a  time.  By  rubbing  on  one  jdace 
more  than  another  an  ai^pearance  of  oak  or  walnut  is  more 
apparent  ;  when  quite  dry,  the  boards  should  be  sized  with 
glue  size,  made  by  boiling  glue  in  water,  and  brushing  it  in 
the  boards  hot.  When  this  is  dry,  the  boards  should  be 
pai:)ered  smooth  and  varnished  with  brown  hard  varnish  or 
oak  varnish  ;  the  brown  hard  varnish  will  wear  better  aud 
dry  quicker  ;  it  should  be  thinned  with  a  little  French  polish, 
and  laid  on  the  boards  with  a  smooth  brush. 

Wax  for  Polishing  Floors. — To  prepare  this,  12^  pounds 
yellow  wax,  rasped,  are  stirred  into  a  hot  solution  of  6  pounds 
good  pearlash,  in  rain  water.  Keeping  the  mixture  well 
stirred  while  boiliug,  it  is  first  quiet,  but  soon  commences  to 
froth  ;  and  when  the  effervescence  ceases,  heat  is  stopped, 
and  there  are  added  to  the  mixture,  while  still  stirring,  6 
pounds  dry  yellow  ochre.  It  may  then  be  poured  into  tin 
cans  or  boxes,  and  hardens  on  cooling.  When  wanted  for 
use,  a  jjound  of  it  is  diffused  into  5  pints  boiling  hot  water, 
and  the  mixture  well  stirred,  applied  while  still  hot  to  the 
floor  by  means  of  a  jjaint  brush.  It  dries  in  a  few  hours, 
after  which  the  floor  is  to  be  polished  with  a  large  floor  brush 
and  afterwards  wiped  with  a  coarse  woolen  cloth  A  coat  of 
this  wax  will  last  six  months. 

Wood— Polishing. 

Knotted  or  cross-grained  wood  cannot  be  planed  with  the 
planes  used  for  deal,  but  with  a  si^ecial  tool,  of  which  the 
iron  is  placed  at  a  more  obtuse  angle.  These  planes  can  be  had 
in  wood  or  metal,  and  are  in  general  use  by  cabinet-makers. 
They  are  named  according  to  the  angle  at  which  the  iron  is 
placed.  For  deal  and  soft  wood  this  is  45  degrees,  or  York 
pitch  ;  while  the  iron  set  at  55  degrees,  middle  pitch,  or  60 


152  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

degrees,  half  pitch,  is  used  for  molding  planes  for  soft  and  hard 
wood.  When  the  latter  is,  however,  very  knotty,  it  is  worked 
over  in  all  directions  with  a  toothing  plane,  so  as  to  cut  across 
the  fibres  and  reduce  the  surface  to  a  general  level.  It  is 
then  finished  by  the  scraper,  often  a  piece  of  freshly  broken 
glass,  but  more  properly  a  thin  plate  of  steel  set  in  a  piece  of 
wood,  and  ground  ofi"  quite  square.  The  edge  is  then  often 
rubbed  with  a  burnisher,  to  turn  up  a  slight  wire  edge. 
This  will  scrape  down  the  surface  of  the  wood  until  it  is 
ready  for  "  i^apering,"  /.  e.,  being  fiirther  smoothed  by  glass 
or  sandpaper.  This  is  to  be  rubbed  in  all  directions,  until 
the  work  has  an  even  surface,  and  the  lines  thus  prodiiced 
are  further  reduced  by  the  finest  sandpai^er,  marked  00. 
After  this  it  is  rubbed  over  with  a  bit  of  flannel,  dipj^ed  in 
linseed  oil,  and  allowed  to  dry.  This  oiling  is  then  repeated, 
and  the  work  again  set  aside  for  a  day  or  more,  until  the  oil 
is  fati-ly  absorbed. 

If  the  wood  be  porous  it  must  first  he  filled,  as  it  is  called, 
and  for  this  nothing  is  better  than  whiting  colored  so  as  to 
resemble  the  wood  and  kept  dry.  Rub  the  wood  with  linseed 
oil  and  then  sj^rinkle  it  with  whiting.  Eub  the  latter  well  in, 
wijje  it  off  carefully  and  give  time  to  dry.  This  is  far  su- 
perior to  size. 

The  ijolish— French  polish — is  made  by  dissohing  shellac 
in  alcohol,  methylated  sj^irits,  or  even  naphtha.  This  is 
facilitated  by  placing  the  jar  or  bottle  in  a  warm  place,  on 
a  stove  or  by  the  fire.  Other  gums  are  often  added,  but  are 
not  generally  necessary.  In  short,  no  two  polishers  use  jire- 
cisely  similar  iugi-edients,  but  shellac  is  the  base  of  all  of 
them.  The  following  recipes  have  been  collected  fi'om  various 
soui-ces  more  or  less  reliable  : 

1.  Shellac,  4  oz. ;  alcohol,  1  pi^? 2.  Shellac,  4  oz. ;  sand- 

arac,  J  oz. ;  alcohol,  1  pint 3.  Finishing  polish  :  Alcohol 

(95  per  cent.),  \  pint  ;  shellac,  2  dr.;  gum  benzoin,  2  dr.; 
put  into  a  bottle,  loosely  corking  it,  and  stand  it  near  a  fire, 
shaking  it  occasionally.  When  cold,  add  two  teaspoonfuls 
of  popjjy  oil,  and  shake  well  together. 

These,  it  must  be  remembered,  are  polishes  to  be  applied 
by  means  of  rubbers,  and  not  by  a  brush.  Those  used  in  the 
latter  way  are  varnishes,  such  as  are  aj^jjlied  to  cheap  wares 
and  also  to  jiarts  of  furniture  and  such  ai-ticles  as  are  carved 
and  cannot  in  consequence  be  finished  by  rubbing. 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  153 

The  polisher  generally  consists  of  a  wad  of  list  rolled 
sjiirally,  tied  with  twine  and  covered  with  a  few  thick- 
nesses of  linen  rag.  Apply  a  little  varnish  to  the  middle  of 
the  rubber  and  then  enclose  the  latter  in  a  soft  linen  rag 
folded  twice.  Moisten  the  face  of  the  linen  with  a  little  raw 
linseed  oil  applied  to  the  middle  of  it  by  means  of  the  finger. 
Pass  the  rubber  quickly  and  lightly  over  the  surface  of  the 
work  in  small  circular  strokes  until  the  varnish  becomes 
nearly  dry  ;  charge  the  rubber  with  varnish  again  and 
repeat  the  rubbing  till  three  coats  are  laid  on,  when  a  little 
oil  may  be  applied  to  the  rubber  and  two  more  coats  given 
it.  Proceed  in  this  way  until  the  varnish  has  acquired  some 
thickness  ;  then  wet  the  inside  of  the  linen  cloth,  before  ap- 
l^lying  the  varnish,  with  alcohol,  and  rub  quickly,  lightly 
and  uniformly,  the  whole  surface.  Lastly,  wet  the  linen 
cloth  with  a  little  oil  and  alcohol,  without  varnish,  and  rub 
as  before  till  dry.  Each  coat  is  to  be  riibbed  until  the  rag 
appears  dry,  and  too  much  varnish  miist  not  be  put  on  the 
rag  at  one  time.  Be  also  very  particular  to  have  the  rags 
clean,  as  the  polish  depends  in  a  great  degree  unon  keeping 
everything  free  from  dust  and  dirt. 

To  insure  success  the  work  must  be  done  in  a  warm  room, 
free  from  diist. 

Turned  articles  must  be  brought  to  a  fine  smooth  surface 
with  the  finest  sandj^aper,  and  the  direction  of  the  motion 
should  be  occasionally  reversed  so  that  the  fibres  which  are 
laid  down  by  rubbing  one  way  may  be  raised  up  and  cut  off. 
To  apply  the  polish,  which  is  merely  a  solution  of  shellac  in 
alcohol,  take  three  or  four  thicknesses  of  linen  rag  and  place 
a  few  droits  of  polish  in  the  centre  ;  lay  over  this  a  single 
thickness  of  linen  rag  and  and  a  drop  or  tAvo  of  raw  linseed 
oil  over  the  jiolish.  The  rubber  is  then  applied  with  light 
friction  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  work  while  revolving 
in  the  lathe,  never  allowing  the  hand  or  mandrel  to  remain 
still  for  an  instant,  so  as  to  spread  the  varnish  as  evenly  as 
possible,  especially  at  the  commencement,  and  paying  par- 
ticular attention  to  the  internal  angles,  so  as  to  i:)revent 
either  deficiency  or  excess  of  varnish  at  those  parts  The 
oil,  in  some  degree,  retards  the  evaporation  of  the  spirit 
from  the  varnish  and  allows  time  for  the  jirocess  ;  it  also 
presents  a  smooth  surface  and  lessens  the  friction  against 
■the  tender  gum.     When  the  varnish  appears  dry,  a  second, 


164  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

third  and  even  further  quantities  are  applied  in  the  same 
manner,  working,  of  course,  more  particularly  upon  those 
parts  at  all  slighted  in  the  earlier  stejJS. 

Wood— Staining. 

In  preparing  any  of  the  tinctures  used  for  staining,  it  is  of 
importance  to  powder  or  mash  all  the  diy  stuffs  previous  to 
dissolving  or  macerating  them,  and  to  j^urify  all  the  liquids 
by  filtration  before  use.  Their  coloring  powers,  which 
mainly  depend  on  very  accurate  combinations  of  the  re- 
quisite ingredients,  should  always  be  carefully  tested  before 
a  free  use  is  made  of  them,  and  the  absorbent  properties  of 
the  materials  intended  to  be  stained  should  be  tested  like- 
wise. It  will  be  better  for  inexperienced  hands  to  coat  twice 
or  three  times  with  a  weak  stain  than  only  once  with  a  very 
strong  one,  as  by  adopting  the  first  mode  a  particular  tint 
may  be  gradually  effected,  whereas,  by  pursuing  the  latter 
course,  an  irremediable  discoloration  may  be  the  result. 
Coarse  jsieces  of  carving,  spongy  end,  and  cross-grained 
woods,  should  be  previously  prejsared  for  the  recejition  of 
stain  ;  this  is  best  done  by  jjutting  on  a  thin  layer  of  varnish, 
letting  it  dry,  and  then  glass-pajiering  it  completely  off 
again.  Fine  work  merely  requires  to  be  oiled  and  slightly 
rubbed  with  the  finest  glass-jsaper.  Thus  prepared,  the 
woody  fibre  is  enabled  to  take  on  the  stain  more  regularly, 
and  to  retain  a  high  degree  of  smoothness.  When  stain  is 
liut  on  with  a  flat  hog-hair  tool,  it  is  usually  softened  by  a 
skilful  but  moderate  application  of  a  badger-hair  softener. 
The  steel  comb  is  chiefly  emi^loyed  for  streaking  artificial 
oak,  and  the  mottler  is  used  for  variegating  and  uniting  the 
shades  and  tints  of  mahogany.  Flannels  and  sponges  are 
often  used  instead  of  brashes,  but  the  implements  most  ser- 
viceable for  veining  or  engraining  purposes  are  smaU  badger 
sash  tools  and  sable  pencils.  The  effect  produced  by  a  coat 
of  stain  cannot  be  ascertained  until  it  has  been  allowed  suf- 
ficient drying  period. 

This  process  may  be  used  either  for  improving  th*»  natural 
color  of  wood  or  for  changing  it  so  completely  as  to  give  it 
the  appearance  of  an  entirely  different  kind  of  timt-er.  Thus 
a  light  mahogany  may  be  greatly  improved  by  lieing  made 
darker,  and  there  are  many  other  kinds  of  timber  that  are 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  155 

greatly  improved  by  a  slight  ciiange  in  their  color.  The  fol- 
lowing notes  will  be  of  use  in  the  latter  direction  : 

A  solution  of  asphaltum  in  spirits  of  turpentine,  makes 
a  good  brown  stain  for  coarse  oaken  work,  which  is  only  in- 
tended to  be  varnished  with  boiled  oil. 

When  discolored  ebony  has  been  sponged  once  or  twice 
Avith  a  strong  decoction  of  gall-nuts,  to  which  a  quantity  of 
iron  tilings  or  rust  has  been  added,  its  natural  blackness 
beco.mes  more  intense. 

The  naturally  pale  ground  and  obscure  grain  of  Honduras 
mahogany  is  often  well  brought  out  by  its  being  coated  tirst 
with  spirits  of  hartshorn,  and  then  with  oil,  which  has  been 
tinged  Avith  madder  or  Venetian  red. 

Grayish  maple  may  be  whitened  by  carefully  coating  it 
with  a  solution  of  oxalic  acid  to  which  a  few  drops  of  nitric 
acid  have  been  added. 

Half  a  gallon  of  Avater  in  Avhich  i  lb.  of  oak  bark  and  the 
same  quantity  of  walnut  shells  or  peels  have  been  thoroughly 
boiled,  makes  an  excellent  improver  of  inferior  rosewood  ;  it 
is  also  far  before  any  other  of  its  kind  for  bringing  out 
Avalnut. 

Raw  oil,  mixed  with  a  little  spirits  of  turpentine,  is 
universally  allowed  to  be  the  most  eflScacious  improver  of 
the  greater  number  of  materials.  Beautiful  artificial  grain- 
ing may  be  imparted  to  Aarious  specimens  of  timber  by 
means  of  a  camel-hair  pencil,  with  raw  oU  alone,  that  is, 
certain  portions  may  be  coated  two  or  three  times  very  taste- 
fully, so  as  to  resemble  the  rich  varying  A'eins  which  con- 
stitute the  fibril  figures  ;  while  the  common,  j^lain  parts, 
which  constitute  the  ground  shades,  may  only  be  once 
coated  with  the  oil,  very  much  diluted  with  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine.    The  foUoAving  are  a  feAV  useful  stains  : 

Mahogany. — 1.  Water,  1  gallon  ;  madder,  8  oz. ;  fustic, 
4  oz.  Boil.  Lay  on  with  a  brush  while  hot,  and  Avhile  wet 
streak  it  Avitli  black  to  vary  the  grain.  This  imitates  Hon- 
duras mahogany. 

2.  Madder,  8  oz. ;  fustic,  1  oz. ;  logAvood,  2  oz. ;  water, 
1  gallon.  Boil  and  lay  on  Avhile  hot.  Resembles  Spanish 
mahogany. 

3.  A  set  of  pine  shelves,  which  Avere  brushed  two  or  three 
times  with  a  strong  boiling  decoction  of  logwood  chips,  and 
Tarnished  with  solution  of  shellac  in  alcohol,  appear  almost 


166  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

like  maliogany  both  in  color  and  hardness.  After  washing 
with  decoction  of  logwood  and  drying  thoroughly,  they  re- 
ceived two  coats  of  varnish.  They  were  then  carefully  sand- 
papered and  polished,  and  received  a  final  coat  of  shellac 
varnish. 

ImikUion  Ebo7iy.— There  are  two  processes  in  use  for  giving 
to  very  fine  grained  wood  the  appearance  of  ebony.  One  is 
a  mere  varnish,  and  may  be  aj^plied  in  a  few  minutes,  as  it 
dries  very  rapidly.  Either  French  polish,  made  black  with 
any  fine  coloring  matter,  or  good  "  aii"-drying  black  varnish," 
may  be  applied.  This,  however,  gives  only  a  superficial 
coloring,  and  when  the  edges  and  corners  of  the  work  wear 
off,  the  light-colored  wood  shows.  The  other  method  is  as 
follows  :  Wash  any  compact  wood  with  a  boiling  decoction 
of  logwood  three  or  four  times,  allowing  it  to  dry  between 
each  ajiplication.  Then  wash  it  Avith  a  solution  of  acetate  of 
iron,  which  is  made  by  dissolving  iron  filings  in  vinegar. 
This  stain  is  very  black  and  penetrates  to  a  considerable 
dejith  into  the  wood,  so  that  ordinary  sci'atching  or  cliii)ping 
does  not  show  the  original  color.  Some  recipes  direct  the 
solutions  of  logwood  and  iron  to  be  mixed  before  being  ap- 
plied, but  this  is  a  great  mistake. 

Black  Walnut  Stain. — 1.  Take  asjjhaltum,  pulverize  it, 
place  it  in  a  jar  or  bottle,  pour  over  it  about  twice  its  bulk 
of  turpentine,  put  it  in  a  warm  place,  and  shake  it  from  time 
to  time.  When  dissolved,  strain  it  and  apjjly  it  to  the  wood 
with  a  cloth  or  stiff  brush.  If  it  should  make  too  dark  a 
stain  thin  it  with  turpentine.  This  will  dry  in  a  few  hours. 
If  it  is  desired  to  bring  out  the  grain  still  more,  apply  a 
mixture  of  boiled  oil  and  turj^entine  ;  this  is  better  than  oil 
alone.  Put  no  oil  with  the  asphaltum  mixture  or  it  will 
dry  very  slowly.  When  the  oil  is  dry  the  wood  can  be 
l)oiished  with  the  following  :  Shellac  varnish,  of  the  usual 
consistency,  2  i^arts  ;  boiled  oil,  1  part.  Shake  it  well  before 
using  Apjjly  it  to  the  wood  by  putting  a  few  drojjs  on  a 
cloth  and  rubbing  briskly  on  the  wood  for  a  iew  moments. 
This  polish  works  well  ou  old  varnished  furnittu'e. 

2.  The  ajipearance  of  walnut  may  be  given  to  white  woods 
by  i^ainting  or  sponging  them  with  a  concentrated  warm 
solution  of  permanganate  of  potassa.  The  effect  is  different 
on  different  kinds  of  timber,  some  becoming  stained  very 
rapidly,  others  requiring  more  time  for  the  result.     The  per- 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  157 

manganate  is  decomposed  by  the  woody  fibre  ;  browu  per- 
oxide of  manganese  is  precipitated,  and  the  i^otash  is  after- 
wards removed  by  washing  with  water.  The  wood,  when 
dry,  may  be  varnished. 

Brown  Stain. — Paint  over  the  wood  with  a  solution  made 
by  boiling  1  part  of  catechu  (ciitch  or  gambler)  with  30  parts 
of  water  and  a  little  soda.  This  must  be  allowed  to  dry  in 
the  air,  and  then  the  wood  is  to  be  painted  over  with  auothe-r 
solution  made  of  1  part  of  bichromate  of  jjotash  and  30  parts 
of  water.  By  a  little  difference  in  the  mode  of  treatment 
and  by  varying  the  strength  of  the  solutions,  various  shades 
of  color  may  be  given  with  these  materials,  which  will  be 
permanent  and  tend  to  preserve  the  wood. 

Staining  Oak. — According  to  Neidling,  a  beautiful  orange- 
yellow  tone,  much  admired  in  a  chest  at  the  Vienna  Exhibi- 
tion, may  be  imparted  to  oak  wood  by  rubbing  it  in  a  warm 
room  with  a  certain  mixture  until  it  acquires  a  dull  polish, 
and  then  coating  it  after  an  hour  with  thin  polish,  and  re- 
peating the  coating  of  polish  to  improve  the  depth  and 
brilliancy  of  the  tone.  The  ingredients  for  the  rubbing 
mixture  are  about  three  ounces  of  tallow,  three-fourths  of  an 
ounce  of  wax,  add  one  pint  of  oil  of  turpentine,  mixed  by 
heating  together  and  stirring. 

Darkening  Oak  Framing. — Take  one  ounce  of  carbonate  of 
soda,  and  dissolve  in  half  pint  boiling  water  ;  take  a  sponge 
or  piece  of  clean  rag,  saturate  it  in  the  solution  and  i)ass 
gently  over  the  wood  to  be  darkened,  so  that  it  is  wet  evenly 
all  over  ;  let  it  dry  for  24  hours.  Try  first  on  an  odd  piece 
of  wood  to  see  color  ;  if  too  dark,  make  the  solution  weaker 
by  adding  more  water  ;  if  not  dark  enough,  give  another 
coat.  This  may  always  be  kept  ready  for  use  in  a  bottle 
corked  up. 

Imitation  Rosewood. — Boil  one-half  jound  of  logwood  in 
three  pints  of  water  till  it  is  of  a  very  dark  red  ;  add  one-half 
ounce  of  salt  of  tartar.  Stain  the  work  with  the  liquor  while 
it  is  boiling  hot,  giving  three  coats  ;  then,  with  a  j^ainter's 
graining  brush,  form  streaks  with  the  following  liquor  :  L.>il 
one-half-pound  of  logwood  chips  in  two  quaais  of  water  ;  add 
one  ounce  of  pearlash,  and  apply  hot. 


158  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

Zinc. 

Zinc,  when  cast  into  plates  or  ingots,  is  a  brittle  metal, 
easily  broken  by  blows  from  a  hammer.  In  this  state  it  is 
evidently  somewhat  porous,  as  its  specific  gravity  is  only  6'8, 
while  that  of  rolled  zinc  rises  as  high  as  7  "2.  Zinc,  when 
heated  to  212°  Fah.,  or  over,  becomes  malleable  and  ductile, 
and  when  rolled  into  sheets  it  becomes  exceedingly  tough  and 
does  not  regain  its  brittle  character  on  cooling.  Hence,  sheet 
zinc  has  come  into  very  extensive  use  in  the  arts. 

To  PulveiHse  Zinc. — Zinc  becomes  exceedingly  brittle  when 
heated  to  nearly  its  melting  point.  To  reduce  it  to  powder, 
therefore,  the  best  plan  is  to  jjour  melted  zinc  into  a  dry  and 
warm  cast-iron  mortar,  and  as  soon  as  it  shows  signs  of 
solidifying  jjound  it  with  the  pestle.  In  this  way  it  may  be 
reduced  to  a  very  fine  powder. 

Black  Varnish  for  Zinc. — Professor  Bottger  prepares  a 
black  coating  for  zinc  by  dissolving  two  parts  nitrate  of  cop- 
per and  three  parts  crystallized  chloride  of  copper  in  sixty- 
four  i^arts  of  Avater,  and  adding  eight  parts  of  nitric  acid.  This, 
however,  is  quite  expensive  ;  and  in  some  places  the  copper 
salts  are  very  difficult  to  obtain.  On  this  account  Puscher 
jjrepares  black  paint  or  varnish  with  the  following  simple 
ingredients  :  Equal  parts  of  chlorate  of  potash  and  blue 
vitriol  are  dissolved  in  thirty -six  times  as  much  warm  water, 
and  the  solution  left  to  cool.  If  the  suli)hate  of  cojiper  used 
contains  iron,  it  is  i^reciiDitated  as  a  hydrated  oxide,  and  can 
be  removed  hj  decantation  or  filtration.  The  zinc  castings 
are  then  immersed  for  a  few  seconds  in  the  solution  until 
quite  black,  rinsed  off  with  water,  and  dried.  Even  before  it 
is  dry,  the  black  coating  adheres  to  the  object  so  that  it  may 
be  wiped  dry  with  a  cloth.  A  more  economical  method, 
since  a  much  smaller  quantity  of  the  salt  solution  is  required, 
is  to  apply  it  repeatedly  with  a  sjionge.  If  coiiper-colored 
spots  appear  during  the  ojieration,  the  solution  is  applied  to 
them  a  second  time,  and  after  a  while  they  turn  black.  As 
soon  as  the  object  becomes  equally  black  all  over,  it  is 
washed  with  water  and  dried.  On  rubbing,  the  coating  ac- 
quires a  glittering  api^earance  like  indigo,  which  disappears 
on  applying  a  few  drops  of  linseed-oil  varnish  or  "  wax 
milk,"  and  the  zinc  has  then  a  deep  black  color  and  gloss. 


APPENDIX 


Adamantine,  or  Boron  Diamond. —  This  term  has  been 
applied  to  a  crystalline  form  of  borou  prepared  by  heating 
boraeic  acid — or,  what  is  still  better,  amorphous  borun — with 
aluminium  in  a  crucible.  The  name  is  not  a  very  happy  one, 
as  it  has  been  applied  to  several  other  articles,  and  the  term 
"boron"  would  be  much  better.  Crystallized  boron,  or  ad- 
amantine, has  not  yet  come  into  use  in  the  arts;  but  from  the 
fact  that  it  is  not  very  difficult  to  prepare,  its  peculiar  prop- 
erties may  lead  to  some  useful  applications. 

Wagner  gives  the  following  details  in  regard  to  its  prepara- 
tion; and  as  they  are  not  very  complicated  or  delicate,  it 
forms  a  fine  field  for  amateur  experiment :  100  parts  of  anhy- 
drous boracie  acid  are  mixed  with  60  parts  of  sodium  in  a 
small  iron  crucible  heated  to  a  red  lieat.  To  this  mixture  40  or 
50  parts  of  common  salt  are  added,  and  the  crucible  luted 
down.  As  soon  as  the  reaction  is  finished,  the  mass  —  consist- 
ing of  amorphous  boron  with  boracie  acid,  borax,  and  common 
salt  intermingled  —  is  stirred  into  water  acidified  with  hydro- 
chloric acid.  The  boron  is  filtered  out,  washed  with  a  weak 
solution  of  hydrochloric  acid,  and  placed  upon  a  porous  stone 
to  dry,  at  the  ordinary  temperature.  From  this  amorphous 
boron  the  crystalline  boron,  or  adamantine,  is  prepared,  as 
follows:  —  A  small  crucible  is  filled  with  amorphous  boron,  in 
the  center  of  which  a  small  bar  of  aluminium,  weighing  4  to  6 
grammes,  is  placed.  The  crucible  is  submitted  to  a  temper- 
ature sufficient  to  melt  nickel  for  li  to  2  hours.  After  cooling, 
the  aluminium  will  be  found  covered  with  beautiful  crystals 
of  boron.    The  diamond  boron  is  easily  separated  from  the 


160  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

graphitoid.  The  crystals  vary  in  color  from  a  scarcely  per- 
ceptible honey -yellow  to  deep  garnet  red :  sometimes  they  are 
so  deeply  colored,  probably  by  amorphous  boron,  that  they 
appear  black.  In  luster  and  refracting  power  they  are  nearly 
equal  to  the  diamond.  Their  specific  gravity  is  2-63.  They 
are  extremely  hard, —  always  sufficiently  so  to  scratch  corun- 
dum, or  even  the  ruby,  with  facility;  and  some  crystals  are 
nearly  as  hai-d  as  the  diamond  itself.  The  hardest  are  ob- 
tained by  repeatedly  exposing  aluminium  to  the  action  of  boric 
anhydride  at  a  temperature  high  enough  to  cause  the  anhy- 
dride to  volatilize  very  quickly. 

From  the  character  of  boron  it  would  seem  eminently  fitted 
for  many  purposes  in  the  arts.  For  cutting-tools  for  very  hard 
substances,  for  jewels  for  timepieces,  etc.,  and  for  ornamental 
jewelry,  it  seems  specially  valuable.  Its  luster,  hardness,  and 
wide  range  of  color,  would  seem  to  give  it  peculiar  value  for 
artificial  gems. 

Aquarium. —  The  aquarium  is  now  not  only  an  interesting 
plaything  and  a  handsome  house  ornament,  but  an  important 
means  of  studying  the  habits  of  those  plants  and  animals  that 
live  in  water,  and  of  watching  the  effect  of  the  different  species 
upon  each  other  and  upon  the  purity  of  the  element  in  which 
they  live.  It  therefore  deserves  the  careful  attention  of  those 
who  are  interested  in  these  subjects,  and  consequently  de- 
mands more  than  a  passing  notice  at  our  hands. 

The  term  aquarium  was  formerly  applied  to  any  tank  or 
small  pond  used  for  growing  aquatic  plants ;  and  in  this  sense 
it  is  used  by  Loudon.  But  since  the  principles  which  regulate 
the  balance  of  organic  nature  have  been  studied  in  connection 
with  this  subject,  the  name  has  been  restricted  to  those  tanks 
or  vessels  in  which  a  self-supporting  system  of  plants  and 
animals  has  been  placed.  The  principles  which  control  the 
successful  management  of  an  aquarium  are  very  beautiful, 
and  not  difficult  to  understand. 

Animals  which  live  constantly  under  water  breathe  just  as 
truly  as  do  those  animals  that  live  on  land,  the  difference  in 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  161 

the  methods  of  breathing  of  the  two  kinds  being  that  while 
land  animals   take  in  the  air  directly  into  their  breathing 
apparatus,  the  water  animals  depend  for  their  supply  of  oxygen 
upon  the  air  that  is  dissolved  in  the  water  that  they  inhabit. 
The  proportion  of  air  which  is  held  in  solution  by  water  is 
considerable,  being  greater  in  cold  weather  and  under  increased 
pressure.     It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  oxygen  dissolves  in 
water  more  freely  than  does  nitrogen;  consequently  the  air 
which  is  supplied  to  fishes  through  the  medium  of  water  is 
always  richer  in  oxygen  than  is  the  air  that  is  breathed  by 
land  animals.     But  under  any  circumstances  the  oxygen  con- 
tained in  a  few  gallons  of  water  is  soon  exhausted  by  a  com- 
paratively small  number  of  fish,  and  its  place  is  occupied  by 
carbonic  acid, —  a  gas  which  is  entirely  unfit  for  supporting 
life.     The  carbonic  acid,  into  which  the  breathing  of  animals 
converts  oxygen,  may  be  removed,  and  its  place  supplied  by 
the  life-sustaining  gas  in  two  ways:    (1)  by  mechanically 
agitating  the  water  and  exposing  it  freely  to  the  air,  and  (2) 
by  the  action  of  plants.    The  first  method  has  been  frequently 
employed  in  aquaria  in  public  museums, —  a  pair  of  bellows  or 
some  such  device  being  employed  to  force  air  in  at  the  bottom 
of  the  tank,  and  in  this  way  agitate  it  and  "aerate"  it.    This, 
however,  is  a  crude  and  unscientific  makeshift.     The  action 
of  plants  is  far  more  efl&cient  and  more  interesting.     Every 
plant,  when  its  leaves  are  exposed  to  light,  absorbs  the  gas 
that  is  exhaled  by  animals  (carbonic   acid),  decomposes  it, 
appropriates  the  carbon  to  itself,  and  sets  the  oxygen  free. 
The  plant,  in  its  action  on  the  air,  is  thus  directly  antagonistic 
to  the  animal:  it  undoes  what  the  animal  does,  and  the  two 
forms  of  life  thus  constitute  a  balance  which  maintains  the 
air  in  its  purity,  and  the  waters  of  rivers,  lakes,  and  oceans, 
in  their  life-giving  qualities.    This  is  the  principle  which  is 
made  use  of  in  the  management  of  a  properly  kept  aquarium : 
plants  are  introduced  in  numbers  and  quantities  sufficient  to 
decompose  the  noxious  gases  given  off  by  the  animals,  and 
the  latter,  in  their  turn,  supply  carbon  to  the  plants. 


162  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

If  no  death,  no  decay,  and  no  obnoxious  growths  ever  oc- 
curred in  the  tanks,  they  would  keep  healthy  and  clear  for  an 
indefinite  time,  provided  they  were  once  properly  balanced  in 
the  way  we  have  described.  But  since  minute  animals  will 
die  and  remain  unseen,  and  plants  will  drop  their  dead  leaves, 
death  in  some  form  or  another  is  present  all  the  time,  and  this 
tends  to  disturb  the  pleasant  condition  of  things.  Therefore, 
in  addition  to  ordinary  plants  and  fish,  it  is  necessary  to  intro- 
duce certain  scavengers  who  will  devour  any  dead  vegetable 
or  animal  matter,  and  thus  put  a  stop  to  its  evil  influence. 
Snails  and  tadpoles  are  the  great  scavengers  of  the  aquarium, 
as  indeed  they  are  in  nature,  for  a  well-kept  aquarium  is 
merely  a  natural  lake  on  a  very  small  scale.  The  dissolved 
portion  of  dead  plants  and  animals,  as  well  as  of  their  excreta, 
—  whether  the  latter  be  solid  faecal  matter  or  the  excretions 
which  are  undoubtedly  given  off  by  the  external  surfaces  of 
all  animals,  fish  as  well  as  others  —  are  taken  up  by  the  roots 
of  the  plants  and  rapidly  removed  from  the  water;  and  so 
nicely  may  all  these  interdependent  actions  be  adjusted  that 
an  aquarium  has  been  covered  with  a  tightly  closed  glass 
plate  and  the  plants  and  animals  kept  in  good  health  for 
mouths. 

A  careful  study  of  these  general  laws  will  enable  any  one 
to  manage  an  aquarium  successfully ;  and  there  are  few  more 
beautiful  objects  in  a  room  than  a  well-kept  aquarium,  with 
the  water  clear  and  the  plants  and  animals  in  good  health. 
But  without  a  knowledge  of  these  principles  and  a  careful 
attention  to  them,  the  owuer  of  an  aquarium  will  be  constantly 
groping  in  the  dark  and  committing  all  sorts  of  blunders  aud 
mistakes. 

Aquaria  are  of  two  classes, —  fresh  water  and  marine, —  ac- 
cording as  the  water  is  salt  or  fresh.  Dwellers  on  the  seashore, 
who  have  facilities  for  procuring  stock  and  water,  find  the 
marine  aquaria  by  far  the  most  beautiful  and  interesting;  and 
even  far  inland  tliis  form  is  a  favorite  with  experts,  as  the 
water,  plants,  and  animals  are  easily  sent  by  rail ;  or,  if  de- 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  1^8 

sirable,  an  artificial  sea- water  may  be  used,  which  will  answer 
every  purpose. 

When  sea-water  can  not  be  procured  for  the  marine  aqua- 
rium, a  substitute  for  it  may  be  made  as  follows:  Mix  with 
970,000  grains  of  rain-water  27,000  grains  of  chloride  of  sodium, 
3,000  of  chloride  of  magnesium,  750  of  chloride  of  potassium, 
29  of  bromide  of  magnesium,  2,300  of  sulphate  of  magnesia, 
1400  of  sulphate  of  lime,  35  of  carbonate  of  lime,  and  5  of 
iodide  of  sodium.  These,  all  being  finely  powdered  and  mixed 
first,  are  to  be  stirred  into  the  water,  through  which  a  stream 
of  air  may  be  caused  to  pass  from  the  bottom  until  the  whole 
is  dissolved.  On  no  account  is  the  water  to  be  boiled,  or  even 
to  be  heated.  Into  this  water,  when  clear,  the  rocks  and  sea- 
weed may  be  introduced.  As  soon  as  the  latter  are  in  a  flour- 
ishing state  the  animals  may  follow.  Care  must  be  taken  not 
to  have  too  many  of  these,  and  to  remove  immediately  any 
dead  ones.  The  loss  that  takes  place  from  evaporation  is  to 
be  made  up  by  adding  clear  rain-water. 

In  such  aquaria  the  beautiful  anemones  and  other  inhab- 
itants of  the  ocean  may  be  kept  in  perfect  health  for  years. 
We  would,  however,  advise  our  readers  to  commence  with  the 
fresh-water  aquarium,  as  being  the  most  easily  procured,  the 
most  readily  stocked,  and  as  requiring  the  simplest  manage- 
ment; and  the  following  directions  are  intended  to  apply 
chiefly  to  that  form. 

Tonfcs.— Aquarium  tanks  are  of  all  sizes  and  shapes,  from 
the  small  fish-globe  to  the  plate-glass  tank,  whose  dimensions 
are  measured  by  yards  and  whose  contents  are  hundreds  of 
gallons.  In  such  tanks  veritable  whales  have  been  kept  in 
good  health.  On  the  other  hand  we  have  formed  a  microscopic 
aquarium  out  of  a  homeopathic  phial,  and  in  it  have  kept 
minute  plants  and  animals  for  months  in  good  condition. 

Probably  the  most  pleasant  and  useful  size  for  an  aquarium 
is  about  thirty  inches  for  the  length  and  fifteen  each  for  width 
and  depth.  Such  a  tank  is  easily  manageable,  while  at  the 
same  time  it  admits  of  a  fine  display  of  plants  and  rockwork, 


164  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

and  allows  abundant  room  for  the  fish  as  well  as  nice  resting- 
places  for  the  amphibious  animals.  For  ourselves,  we  confess 
that  we  have  a  liking  for  large  tanks, —  larger,  even,  than  that 
just  described.  In  such  tanks  we  are  able  to  watch  the  natural 
growth  and  development  of  most  ordinary  fish ;  the  plants  that 
are  introduced  need  not  be  mere  dwarfs ;  and  the  large  body 
of  water  which  they  contain  is  not  subject  to  such  sudden  and 
violent  changes  of  temperature,  unless  exposed  to  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun, —  a  condition  which  should  never  be  allowed. 
But  when  the  main  tank  is  of  a  large  size,  it  will  in  general  be 
found  necessary  to  have  a  few  small  ones  for  the  more  minute 
specimens,  which  would  otherwise  be  difficult  to  find  in  the 
large  tank. 

Avoid  globes  and  all  tanks  with  curved  surfaces,  as  they  give 
a  distorted  view  of  the  animals,  and  when  large  are  easily 
broken  by  any  tap  or  increase  of  pressure  from  within.  It  ia 
true  that  for  scientific  purposes  bottles  of  all  kinds,  and  even 
test-tubes,  may  be  used;  and  on  one  occasion,  where  we  re- 
quired a  large  number  of  vessels,  we  made  good  use  of  a  lot  of 
two-quart  fruit-jars.  But  these  are  makeshifts,  and  not  very 
good  ones  at  that.  Even  hexagonal  and  octagonal  vessels, 
although  they  are  peculiar  and  somewhat  pretty,  we  dislike, 
because  the  field  of  view  (if  we  may  so  express  it)  is  very 
limited.  The  fish,  in  moving  about  quickly,  get  behind  another 
plane,  and  then  the  distortion  is  horrible.  Now,  what  we  want 
to  secure  is  a  clear  and  iinobstructed  view  of  all  parts  of  the 
tank,  so  that  the  movements  of  the  fish  and  the  relations  of  the 
plants  may  be  clearly  and  constantly  visible  when  we  wish 
them  to  be  so.  Nothing  meets  this  requirement  so  thoroughly 
as  a  four-sided  tank  made  of  good  plate-glass. 

It  is  probable  that  most  fish  and  other  animals  would  prefer 
opaque  sides,  as  more  closely  imitating  a  natural  pond;  and 
acting  on  this  idea,  some  makers  have  constructed  their  tanks 
with  backs  made  of  slate.  The  idea  is  a  good  one  for  some 
purposes,  such  as  experiments  in  fish-breeding,  but  the  plan 
is  unsuited  to  the  wants  of  the  naturalist.     If  an  opaque  back 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  165 

is  thought  to  be  advantageous,  just  hang  a  black  cloth  behind 
the  glass :  this  can  be  removed  when  a  view  from  that  side  ij 
needed. 

Most  tanks  are  made  with  cast-iron  frames,  into  which  the 
glass  is  cemented;  and  when  the  work  is  well  done,  so  that 
the  metal  is  nowhere  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  water,  this 
plan  answers  very  well.  The  bottom,  as  well  as  the  sides, 
should  be  of  glass,  however, — a  plate  of  common  window-glass, 
cemented  to  the  cast-iron  bottom,  answering  every  purpose. 
A  very  excellent  aquarium  may  be  made  with  slate  for  the 
bottom ;  and  for  the  corners  four  cast-iron  pillars,  into  which 
the  glass  is  cemented.  The  slab  of  slate  should  be  consider- 
ably larger  than  the  space  inclosed  by  the  glass,  so  as  to  secure 
abundant  strength ;  and  as  slate  is  as  easily  cut  and  planed  as 
wood,  the  edge  may  be  molded  so  as  to  have  a  very  handsome 
finish.  A  slab  of  marble  is  sometimes  used,  but  it  is  entirely 
unsuitable,  unless  when  covered  with  glass,  firmly  cemented 
to  it.  The  reason  of  this  is  that  marble  is  soluble  in  water 
containing  carbonic  acid,  and  it  forms  a  deposit  on  the  sides 
of  the  tank,  besides  injuring  the  fish. 

Cements. —  A  great  deal  has  been  said  about  the  cement 
proper  to  use  for  uniting  the  parts  of  the  aquarium.  Some 
authors  tell  us  that  any  cement  containing  either  lime  or  lead 
will  be  sure  to  injure  the  fish ;  but  this  must  evidently  depend 
very  much  upon  the  condition  in  which  these  materials  are 
present  in  the  cement. 

White  lead  and  ordinary  building  lime  would  probably  be 
bad;  but  we  have  had  tanks  cemented  with  mixtures  contain- 
ing litharge,  and  also  others  containing  good  hydraulic  cement, 
and  after  long  exposure  to  pure  water  and  to  water  containing 
carbonic  acid,  neither  the  lead  nor  the  lime  seemed  to  be  dis- 
solved to  an  extent  that  could  be  detected  by  the  most  delicate 
chemical  tests,  and  neither  did  the  plants  or  animals  seem  to 
suffer  from  any  injurious  effects.  We  therefore  feel  satisfied 
that  the  cements  described  in  the  article  Cements  in  the  former 
part  of  this  work  will  fulfill  every  requirement. 


166  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

Rock-work. —  Rock- work  is  not  only  ornamental,  but  useful, 
as  it  furnishes  hiding-places  for  the  animals  —  all  of  which 
love  seclusion  at  certain  times.  In  selecting  rocks,  see  that 
all  those  containing  lime  and  other  soluble  matters  are  avoided. 
To  determine  this,  pound  some  of  the  rock  up  and  mix  it  with 
clear  rain-water  in  a  tumbler.  After  standing  a  day  or  two, 
evaporate  a  little  of  the  water  in  a  watch-glass,  or  even  on  a 
piece  of  thin  window-glass,  and  if  it  leaves  a  considerable  de- 
posit the  rock  is  soluble  and  consequently  bad. 

By  keeping  a  sharp  lookout  we  may  often  find  rocks  of  a 
very  picturesque  form,  and  having  little  holes  or  pockets  in 
their  sides.  These  holes  may  be  enlarged  and  used  for  holding 
small  plants,  which  will  grow  in  them  freely. 

Avoid  all  artificial  nonsense  like  earthenware  castles,  sub- 
marine hermits,  glass  swans,  cast-iron  frogs,  and  the  like.  No 
person  of  taste  would  allow  any  such  childish  make-believes 
to  have  a  place  in  an  aquarium.  So,  too,  avoid  the  incongruity 
of  placing  sea-shells  and  coral,  however  pretty  and  handsome, 
in  a  fresh- water  aquarium.  A  sea-shell  in  a  marine  aquarium 
may  be  not  only  appropriate,  but  useful,  as  many  animals  use 
these  deserted  shells  for  burrows ;  but  in  a  fresh- water  aqua- 
rium they  are  entirely  out  of  place.  And  yet  we  have  seen 
not  only  large  sea-shells  in  a  fresh-water  tank,  but  of  a  whole 
herd  of  china  (not  Chinese)  cattle  placed  as  if  grazing  on  the 
bottom! 

Water. —  In  procuring  water  for  the  aquarium,  always  select 
that  which  is  as  pure  as  possible.  Absolutely  pure  water  can 
not  be  had,  even  in  the  laboratory  of  the  chemist,  nor  would 
it  be  desirable  if  it  could  be  obtained.  Distilled  water  is 
entirely  unfit  for  starting  an  aquarium.  The  water  of  pure 
wells,  lakes,  and  streams,  is  the  most  suitable.  Some  natural 
waters  are  so  highly  impregnated  with  lime,  iron,  or  sulphur, 
that  they  are  quite  unsuited  to  our  purpose,  though  we  have 
seen  both  animals  and  plants  thriving  in  such  waters.  It  will 
be  found,  however,  on  examination,  that  these  plants  and 
animals  have  become  acclimated, —  as  it  were,  reconciled  to 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  16t 

their  conditions;  and  also  that  there  are  at  work  certain 
countervailing  influences  which  we  may  find  it  difficult  to 
imitate.  Whenever  we  have  attempted  to  use  such  water, — 
and  we  have  frequently  done  so  for  experiment,— all  plants 
and  animals  not  born  and  brought  up  in  it  have  suffered. 

Water  impregnated  with  iron  or  sulphur  is,  in  general,  quite 
local  in  its  occurrence.  A  certain  pond  or  stream  will  be 
strongly  tainted,  and  streams  only  a  few  yards  distant  will 
be  quite  pure.  But  in  many  districts  of  country,  all  the  water 
contains  such  a  large  percentage  of  lime  that  it  is  unfit  for 
aquarium  purposes.  In  such  cases  recourse  should  be  had  to 
rain-water,  caught  at  a  distance  from  houses  and  well  filtered. 
With  such  water  we  have  succeeded  admirably. 

After  the  aquarium  has  been  filled  and  the  plants  have 
begim  to  grow  nicely,  it  will  be  found  that  the  water  gradually 
diminishes  on  account  of  evaporation;  and  this  is  specially 
marked  in  those  aquaria  that  are  kept  in  warm  rooms,  where 
the  air  is  dry.  In  such  cases  it  will  be  found  that  it  is  the 
water  alone  that  evaporates  and  is  wasted;  the  salts  and  other 
impurities  remain  behind.  If  we  now  fill  up  the  tank  with 
water,  such  as  we  originally  used,  and  which  contains  the 
same  amount  of  saline  matter  that  the  water  did,  it  is  evident 
that  we  add  to  the  original  impurities;  and  by  keeping  up 
this  practice,  we  will  soon  have  more  salts  present  than  is 
endurable.  This  is  particularly  the  case  with  marine  aquaria: 
if  we  keep  ou  adding  sea-water  to  make  up  for  the  evaporation, 
it  will  soon  attain  a  Dead-Sea  degree  of  saltness.  To  avoid 
this  we  must  simply  imitate  Nature,  and  make  up  for  the  loss 
by  evaporation  by  adding  rain-water, — which  should,  however, 
for  aquarium  purposes,  always  be  well  filtered.  At  proper 
intervals  — three  months  or  so  — we  should  draw  off  a  large 
proportion  of  the  water  in  the  tank,  and  fill  up  with  newly 
collected  water,— fresh  or  salt,  as  the  case  may  require. 

It  will  sometimes  be  found  that  certain  plants  and  animals 
whose  habitat  is  boggy  and  impure  water  will  not  thrive  well 
in  any  other.    In  such  cases,  the  only  way  to  secure  success 


168  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

xs  to  set  up  a  separate  tank,  in  which  the  natural  conditions 
are  imitated  as  closely  as  possible. 

Floor  and  Soil. —  By  "floor"  is  meant  the  surface  of  the 
sand,  gravel,  or  earth,  at  the  bottom  of  the  tank.  In  the  com- 
mon fish-globes,  this  is  frequently  merely  the  glass  itself, 
though  sometimes  a  handful  of  gravel  is  used  to  cover  the 
bottom.  But  in  a  properly  constructed  aquarium,  where  a 
considerable  variety  of  animals  and  plants  are  to  be  kept, 
great  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  floor  and  to  the  soil  be- 
neath it.  Some  animals  are  very  fond  of  burrowing,  and  some 
of  the  plants  require  soil  in  which  to  grow,  and  the  needs  of 
both  should  be  provided  for. 

The  great  difficulty  will  be  found  in  regard  to  the  soil.  If 
merely  placed  on  the  bottom  of  the  tank  and  covered  with 
sand  or  small  gravel,  the  crayfish,  etc.,  will  probably  dig 
down  to  it,  disturb  it,  and  muddy  the  water.  They  like  no 
better  fun,  but  it  spoils  the  aquarium.  We  have  found  that 
the  best  plan  is  to  cover  the  bottom  with  rich  soil,  and  then 
pave  it  over  closely  with  thin,  flat  stones.  The  roots  of  the 
plants  will  find  no  difficulty  in  getting  down,  but  the  ci'ayfish 
can  not  follow.  As  it  is  not  well  to  have  the  soil  packed  too 
closely  by  the  weight  of  the  sand,  gravel,  and  stones  above, 
we  generally  mix  it  with  small  stones,  and  upon  these  the 
pavement  rests.  The  pavement  of  thin  stones  is  then  covered 
to  the  depth  of  one  or  two  inches  with  fine  gravel  or  coarse 
sand.  For  the  marine  aquarium,  well-washed  sea-sand  is  the 
best:  for  the  fresh-water  aquarium,  the  best  material  will  be 
found  in  the  bed  of  some  clear  and  rapid  stream.  This,  when 
freed  from  mud  by  washing,  will  be  sure  to  answer  well. 
Where  this  can  not  be  had,  use  good  building-sand  or  gravel, 
well  washed.  The  amount  of  washing  required  is  something 
enormous ;  and  unless  this  operation  is  thoroughly  performed, 
the  tank  will  never  prove  satisfactory.  The  sand  should  be 
so  clean  that  when  a  handful  of  it  is  poured  into  a  tall  jar  it 
will  sink  to  the  bottom  in  less  than  one  minute  and  leave  the 
water  perfectly  clear. 


THE   WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 


169 


The  beautiful  white  gravel  used  for  roofing  makes  a  very- 
pleasing  floor;  but  as  it  is  brought  from  the  sea  it  requires 
not  only  washing,  but  thorough  soaking  for  some  time  before 
it  can  be  used  in  the  fresh-water  aquarium. 

Avoid  limy  and  ferruginous  sand ;  that  is  to  say,  sand  that 
is  imjjregnated  with  lime  or  iron.  Such  sand  may,  in  general, 
be  known  by  its  peculiar  reddish  color. 

The  soil  at  the  bottom  of  the  tank  may  be  any  rich  garden 
mould.  Some  plants — such  as  hornwort,  anacharis,  etc. — grow 
freely  while  simply  floating  in  the  water :  these  need  no  soil. 
Others  do  better  when  securely  anchored;  but  for  them  sand 
or  gravel  is  sufficient.  There  are  some,  however,  like  valisne- 
ria,  beccabunga,  cress,  etc.,  that  do  not  thrive  well  unless 
rooted  in  soil.  There  are  two  ways  of  supplyiug  their  needs : 
One  is  to  cover  the  entire  bottom  of  the  aquarium  with  soil, 
and  plant  the  specimens  in  this,  covering  it  over  with  sand 
or  fiue  gravel,  as  previously  described.  Another  way  —  and 
the  one  which  we  confess  we  like  best — is  to  set  out  the  plants 
in  small  pots,  which  are  sunk  to  the  very  bottom  of  the  tank 
and  concealed  by  a  heap  of  rock.  The  pots  for  this  purpose 
should  be  shallow:  common  flower-pots  cut  down  answer  very 
well.  This  can  almost  always  be  done  very  readily  by  means 
of  an  old  saw.  A  height  of  2j  inches  is  quite  sufficient.  A 
cocoanut-shell  makes  a  good  pot  for  such  purposes.  It  do"s 
not  decay  readily ;  it  is  easily  cut  with  a  saw ;  and  the  bottom 
may  be  drilled  full  of  fine  holes,  which  is  a  great  advantage. 
But  the  neatest  and  best  pot  may  be  made  out  of  a  piece  of 
soft  sandstone,  cut  with  a  chisel  to  the  proper  shape,  and  hol- 
lowed out  for  the  reception  of  the  soil.  We  have  often  won- 
dered that  the  dealers  in  aquarium  stock  do  not  manufacture 
pots  specially  for  this  purpose.  They  should  be  of  a  shape 
the  reverse  of  the  common  flower-pots, —  that  is,  widest  at  the 
base. 

STOCKING    THE    AQUARIUM. 

The  great  mistake  made  by  most  beginners  in  stocking  an 
aquarium  is  in  getting  too  much  animal  life  in  proportion  to 


lYO  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

the  cubic  capacity  of  the  tank.  It  is  not  often  that  we  see 
too  many  plants,  but  we  often  see  too  many  fishes.  Fish  are 
so  easily  obtained,  they  look  so  pretty,  and  form  such  interest- 
ing pets,  that  few  beginners  can  refrain  from  keeping  all  that 
they  can  crowd  in.  Since  the  aquarium  should  be  a  means  of 
instruction  as  well  as  pleasure,  we  would  advise  our  readers 
to  restrict  themselves  to  one  of  each  kind,  unless  in  such 
cases  as  the  sticklebacks,  where  pairs  are  necessary  to  enable 
us  to  watch  their  nest-building,  hatching,  and  caring  for  their 
young. 

Having  obtained  a  tank  and  fitted  it  up  with  rock-work,  and 
a  nice  clean  floor,  the  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  set  out  those 
plants  that  are  to  take  root  in  the  subsoil.  Then  fill  the  tank 
gently  and  slowly  with  water,  so  as  not  to  disturb  the  sand  or 
gravel.  This  may  be  done  by  pouring  the  water  on  a  large 
bung  or  piece  of  wood,  which  is  allowed  to  float  and  rise  as 
the  tank  fills,  and  is  removed  when  sufficient  water  has  been 
introduced.  Floating  plants  may  now  be  introduced,  and  also 
a  few  mollusks  and  tadpoles,  and  the  whole  allowed  to  stand 
for  a  few  days  exposed  to  the  light,  until  the  water  has  been 
brought  into  proper  condition  to  receive  the  fishes  and  crusta- 
ceans. The  latter  may  then  be  introduced.  In  all  this,  seek 
to  obtain  as  great  variety  as  possible, —  unless,  indeed,  you 
desire  to  study  carefully  some  one  species  or  genus  of  plants 
or  animals,  and  then,  of  course,  you  will  be  guided  by  the 
special  purpose  you  may  have  in  view.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
aquarium  may  be  rudely  classed  as  follows :  Plants,  mollusks, 
insects,  crustaceans,  reptiles,  and  fishes.  To  each  of  these 
divisions  we  shall  devote  a  few  words,  though  from  want 
of  space  we  are  unable  to  give  anything  like  a  description 
of  the  different  species.  To  do  this  would  require  a  large 
volume. 

Plants. —  The  plants  most  suitable  for  the  aquarium  are 
those  which  grow  with  their  leaves  entirely  submerged.  Large 
plants  like  calla,  arrowhead,  etc.,  which  grow  with  their  leaves 
in  the  air,  do  not  act  upon  the  water  so  effectually  as  those 


THE   WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  lU 

small  plants  whose  leaves  obtain  all  their  carbon  from  the 
water  itself.  Indeed,  the  plants  which  are  most  effective  in 
aerating  the  water  of  the  aquarium  are  probably  those  minute 
confervfe  which  are  so  apt  to  cover  the  rock  and  glass  with  a 
green  coating. 

Among  the  plants  which  are  most  useful  are  the  following: 
Vallisneria  spiralis,  whose  slender  tape-like  leaves  sometimes 
reach  a  length  of  six  feet  in  some  of  our  rivers.  It  readily 
accommodates  itself  to  the  aquarium,  and  is  not  only  an  ex- 
cellent aerater,  but  it  harbors  hosts  of  animalcules  on  which 
tlie  fish  feed  greedily.  Water  millfoil  is  another  excellent 
plant  for  our  purpose.  It  may  be  found  in  the  spring  growing 
in  dense  masses  in  deep  water.  The  "seed,"  a  rather  peculiar 
form  of  bud,  may  often  be  found  floating  in  the  water  in  very 
early  spring.  This  bud,  which  looks  like  a  round  green  seed, 
about  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  will,  if  placed  in  the  aquarium, 
soon  begin  to  grow  and  send  out  a  long  stem  densely  clothed 
with  narrow  leaves.  It  forms  no  roots,  but  grows  floating  in 
the  water,  and  forms  a  pleasant  shade  for  the  animals  in  the 
tank.  The  anacharis  alsinastrum,  sometimes  called  water- 
thyme,  is  another  excellent  plant  for  this  purpose.  It  is  the 
plant  which  has  caused  so  much  trouble  in  England  by  choking 
up  the  rivers  and  canals.  Nitella  is  also  a  good  plant,  and  is 
frequently  cultivated  for  the  purpose  of  showing  the  circula- 
tion or  rather  cyclosis  of  the  sap  under  the  microscope,  though 
a  good  young  leaf  of  vallisneria  is  perhaps  as  good  as  any  for 
this  purpose.  The  duckweeds,  frogbits,  and  starworts,  are 
also  great  favorites. 

The  fact  is,  however,  that  the  young  collector  can  hardly  go 
wrong.  Any  of  the  smaller  plants  found  growing  naturally 
under  the  water  of  our  ponds  and  streams  answer  well  for  the 
aquarium;  and  it  is  a  good  lesson  in  botany  to  gather  them, 
watch  their  growth,  and  learn  their  names. 

Mollusks. —  These  are  not  only  an  interesting  but  an  almost 
indispensably  useful  portion  of  the  inhabitants  of  every  well 
regulated  aquarium.     They  serve  to  keep  down  the  confervse, 


112  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

to  remove  decaying  vegetable  matter;  and  when  well  supplied 
with  these  they  multiply  very  rapidly,  and  their  eggs  and 
young  form  excellent  food  for  the  fishes.  The  variety  that 
may  be  found  is  very  large,  and  every  stagnant  pond  swarms 
with  them.  We  would  advise  our  readers  to  select  a  few  of 
all  the  kinds  that  can  be  found,  work  out  their  names  by 
studying  books  on  the  subject,  and  carefully  watch  their 
habits.  Some  of  them  have  a  curious  habit  of  swimming  on 
their  backs  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  They  adhere  to  the 
smooth  surface  of  the  glass  by  "suction,"  creep  along  it  with 
a  curious  motion,  and  literally  "mow"  off  the  confervse  with 
their  tongues.  All  this  can  be  easily  seen  through  the  glass 
by  means  of  a  good  lens.  The  eggs,  also,  are  most  interesting 
objects.  They  are  frequently  deposited  on  the  glass,  and  can 
then  be  studied  very  readily  by  means  of  a  microscope.  After 
a  short  time  the  young  snail  can  be  seen  distinctly  in  the  egg, 
and  its  motions  easily  observed.  For  tanks  of  fair  size  the 
fresh-water  mussel  is  an  interesting  and  beautiful  inhabitant. 
Its  pearl-white  mantle  and  gorgeously  colored  shell  are  feat- 
ures which  even  the  most  unenthusiastic  must  admire. 

Insects. —  The  larvae  of  insects — and  in  a  few  cases  the 
mature  animals  themselves — are  interesting.  The  bottoms 
of  most  of  our  small  ponds  are  alive  with  different  species, 
some  of  which  are  very  curious  in  their  habits.  It  unfortu- 
nately happens,  however,  that  the  fish  have  a  strong  liking  for 
them ;  and  those  for  which  the  fish  have  not  a  strong  liking 
have  a  sti-ong  liking  for  the  fish,  so  that  when  we  exclude  both 
those  that  are  easily  destroyed  and  those  that  are  destructive, 
the  scope  for  choice  is  rather  narrow.  The  water  boatman 
{Notonecta  glaucus)  is  a  common  inhabitant  of  ponds  and 
pixddles,  and  an  interesting  subject  for  the  aquarium,  and  so 
is  the  whirligig  (Gyn'MMS  natator).  The  larvae  of  the  dragon- 
fly and  of  the  dytiscus  are  curious  but  destructive ;  and  one 
of  the  most  singular  objects  is  the  larvae  of  the  Corydalus.  It 
is  known  also  as  the  "helgramite,"  and  is  largely  used  for  bait 
by  fishermen.     The  motion  of  its  external  gills,  when  watched 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  It3 

under  the  microscope,  is  very  curious.  The  large  water-beetle 
{Hydrous  piceus)  is  said  by  some  to  be  harmless,  but  our  expe- 
rience does  not  bear  this  out 

But  of  all  the  insect  inhabitants  of  the  pond  or  tank,  the 
caddis-woi'm  is  the  most  eui'ious  and  wonderful.  This  curious 
insect  builds  a  little  house  for  itself,  and  carries  it  about  on 
its  back, —  enlarging  its  dwelling  as  its  body  increases  in  bulk. 
These  dwellings,  or  "cases"  as  they  are  called,  are  formed  of 
sticks,  stones,  and  other  material,  and  are  designed  to  afford 
protection  to  the  animal  while  in  its  defenseless  state.  But 
it  often  happens  that  some  trout  or  otlier  voracious  enemy 
comes  along  and  swallows  not  only  the  poor  cad,  but  his 
"castle"  as  well.  As  a  still  further  protection,  therefore,  the 
caddis-worm  endeavors  to  escape  observation  by  forming  his 
house  as  nearly  as  possible  of  the  same  color  as  his  surround- 
ings. 

Crustaceans. — Crayfish  and  shrimp  should  by  all  means  have 
a  place  in  the  aquarium.  They  are  to  be  found  in  most  streams 
by  turning  over  the  stones,  and  they  are  easily  caught.  Of  the 
fresh-water  crayfish  we  have  one  species  in  this  country  which 
seems  to  be  spread  over  a  pretty  wide  range,  and  is  well  known 
to  anglers  as  a  killing  bait  for  bass  and  some  other  fish.  Its 
scientific  name  is  Astacus  Bartonii.  It  breeds  fi"eely,  and  tlie 
young  are  curious  little  creatures.  The  old  females  may  fre- 
quently be  found  with  a  number  of  their  young  adhering  to 
their  bodies  under  the  tail ;  and  when  such  a  specimen  can  be 
captured  it  is  well  worth  while  to  give  her  a  separate  tank, 
and  try  to  rear  the  young. 

In  addition  to  the  crayfish,  the  grammarus  is  well  worthy  of 
a  place;  and  so  is  the  brachipus.  The  grammarus,  or  fresh- 
water shrimp,  is  a  favorite  food  of  the  trout,  which  always 
grows  to  a  larger  size,  and  has  a  superior  flavor  where  they 
abound. 

Insects,  crustaceans,  and  reptiles  are  all  apt  to  make  efforts 
to  escape  during  the  night ;  and  therefore  the  aquarium  con- 
taining them  should  be  carefully  covered  every  evening,  so  as 


lU  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

to  prevent  this.  The  best  cover  is  a  light  wooden  frame,  over 
which  fine  wire  gauze  is  stretched. 

Reptiles. —  No  aquarium  can  be  considered  complete  without 
a  frog  or  a  tadpole.  Watching  a  tadpole  develop  into  a  frog 
is  a  favorite  amusement  with  young  naturalists.  First  of  all 
they  gradually  increase  in  size,  and  when  this  process  has 
been  carried  to  a  certain  extent  the  hind  legs  develop,  and  we 
have  a  curious  compound — half  fish,  half  reptile.  After  a  time 
the  fore  legs  make  their  appearance,  the  tail  drops  off,  and  the 
animal  changes  entirely  its  habits  and  necessities.  It  no  longer 
lives  in  the  water,  for  it  is  now  an  air-breathing  creature: 
and  whereas  it  formerly  subsisted  on  vegetables  and  dead 
animal  matter,  it  now  feeds  chiefly  upon  living  insects,  which 
It  captui'es  with  wonderful  dexterity.  It  is  a  singular  fact, 
iiowever,  that  these  changes  are  greatly  influenced  by  the  con- 
dition in  which  the  tadpole  is  placed.  If  confined  in  a  dark 
place  the  change  never  comes  at  all,  and  it  remains  a  tadpole 
all  its  life. 

Besides  the  frog  there  are  several  other  reptiles  which  are 
worthy  of  a  place  in  the  tank.  The  most  interesting  of  these 
are  the  newts.  There  are  several  species,  all  quite  pretty,  and 
adding  much  to  the  variety  of  the  stock.  Some  persons,  it  is 
true,  can  not  endure  the  sight  of  these  creatures ;  and  where 
such  idiosyncracies  exist,  the  newts  must  be  omitted.  It  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  where  frogs  and  newts  are  kept  some 
provision  must  be  made  for  allowing  them  to  spend  a  large 
portion  of  their  time  out  of  the  water,  otherwise  they  will 
certainly  be  drowned. 

Fish. —  In  procuring  fish  for  the  aquarium,  one  of  the  great- 
est sources  of  pleasure  will  be  the  catching  of  them.  The 
catching  of  small  fish,  imder  ordinary  circumstances,  is  an 
insipid  and  to  some  a  very  distasteful  occupation ;  but  when 
it  is  done  for  purposes  of  study,  or  with  a  view  to  the  stocking 
of  an  aquarium,  a  new  element  of  pleasure  is  infused  into  the 
pursuit.  Our  streams  and  ponds  abound  with  little  fish  that 
are  easily  caught,  and  make  very  interesting  little  pets.    The 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  175 

simplest  and  best  way  to  capcure  them  is  with  a  small  net 
made  of  "mosquito  netting."  The  net  is  simply  a  bag  stretched 
on  a  hoop  about  18  inches  in  diameter, which  in  turn  is  fastened 
to  a  handle  six  or  eight  feet  long.  The  bag  should  be  at  least 
twice  as  deep  as  long;  and  if  the  netting  is  new  and  white, 
it  should  be  stained  a  dirty  mud-color  by  means  of  logwood 
or  coffee,  as  the  glare  of  the  white  net  would  scare  the  fish. 
The  fish  may  be  driven  into  such  a  net,  or  it  may  be  used 
like  a  landing-net.  No  great  dexterity  is  required,  and  it  is 
a  matter  of  considerable  interest  to  examine  the  "haul"  and 
sort  out  the  different  species.  The  angler  should  in  this  case 
be  satisfied  with  two  or  three  of  a  kind,  and  all  the  others 
should  be  returned  to  the  water.  Remember  that  many  of 
these  fish  are  the  young  of  larger  ones,  and  when  full  grown 
afford  good  sport  to  the  angler.  And  even  if  they  are  not  the 
young  of  the  larger  kinds,  they  form  the  natural  prey  of  the 
food-fishes,  and  should  be  carefully  protected  from  wanton 
destruction. 

The  varieties  that  may  be  obtained  are  quite  numerous. 
There  are  the  minnows,  the  dace,  the  darters,  and  others. 
Vei'y  small  perch  and  sunfish  form  very  handsome  pets  in  the 
aquarium,  but  they  must  be  quite  small  or  they  will  prove 
mischievous.  Pickerel  and  bass  can  only  be  admitted  while 
very  young,  and  in  association  with  fish  much  larger  than 
themselves.  They  should  be  liberally  supplied  with  very  small 
fish;  or  if  allowed  to  become  hungry  they  will  torment  and 
even  kill  fish  ten  times  their  size. 

Gold  and  silver  fish  and  the  different  varieties  of  carps  all 
form  interesting  additions  to  the  stock.  These  may  be  pro- 
cured from  the  dealers  for  a  very  small  sum.  A  very  small 
eel  is  a  curious  and  amusing  little  creature,  and  should  by  all 
means  be  allowed  a  place,  although  Edwards  denies  them 
admission  on  the  ground  that  they  kill  the  moUusks. 

But  of  all  the  fish  that  are  procurable  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances the  stickleback  is  the  most  interesting;  and  the 
following  account  of  its  habits  and  mode  of  caring  for  its 


176  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

young  can  hardly  fail  to  tempt  tkose  whose  tastes  lead  them 
in  this  direction  to  repeat  these  observations.  Mr.  West  gives 
the  following  account  of  his  experience  with  a  pair  of  stickle- 
backs : — 

"In  the  spring  of  1860  I  procured  some  male  and  female 
sticklebacks,  a  single  pair  of  which  I  placed  in  a  fresh-water 
aquarium  by  themselves;  and  the  remainder  I  deposited  in  a 
large  salt-water  tank,  which  was  already  pretty  well  stocked. 
The  males  of  these  quietly  took  possession  of  spots  eligible 
for  their  nests  and  commenced  building.  They  were,  however, 
so  much  disturbed,  and  their  work  was  so  often  destroyed  by 
the  crabs  and  other  inmates  of  the  aquarium  that  my  exper- 
iment of  breeding  in  my  salt-water  tank  was  for  the  season  a 
failure.  Not  so  in  the  fresh  water  one.  The  male  promptly 
selected  a  home  for  his  expected  family,  taking  all  the  labor 
upon  himself.  Hei'e,  again,  poetry  has  been  substituted  for 
fact.  Instead  of  '  gently  alluring  his  mate  to  their  new-made 
home,'  and  being  'a  model  husband,'  truth  compels  me  to  say 
that  he  was  the  veriest  of  tyrants,  and  fiercely  attacked  his 
cara  sposa  if  she  dared  to  approach  the  nest  during  its  con- 
struction. When  his  labor  was  completed,  however,  he  as 
harshly  attempted  to  drive  her  into  it.  During  the  progress 
of  the  building  her  meekness,  submission,  and  affection  were 
beyond  all  praise.  She  generally  lay  quietly  in  a  corner  of  the 
aquarium,  and  when  he  chanced  to  come  near  her  would  im- 
mediately rise  up  perpendicularly,  quivering  her  fins,  rubbing 
herself  against  his  side,  and  making  every  possible  demonstra- 
tion of  tenderness.  All  the  material  for  the  nest  was  conveyed 
by  the  male  in  his  mouth.  It  consisted  of  various  coufervge, 
stems  of  nitella,  etc.,  which  were  placed  in  layers,  with  a 
mouthful  of  sand  or  fine  gravel  occasionally  dropped  upon 
them  to  keep  each  laj'er  in  its  place;  and  he  frequently  slowly 
rubbed  himself  over  the  whole  mass,  apparently  covering  it 
with  a  cement  exuded  from  his  body.  When  completed  it  was 
a  compact  nest,  with  a  round  passage  through  it  of  from  one 
fourth  to  three  eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter.     Having  given 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  177 

it  the  finishing  touch,  he  sought  the  female  to  drive  her  in. 
As  I  was  at  this  moment  watching  the  operation  I  had  the 
rare  opportunity  of  observing  the  actual  depositing  of  the 
spawn,  etc.,  of  which  no  description  has  yet  met  my  eye.  The 
madam  now  acted  with  proverbial  female  coquetry  and  way- 
wardness, and  led  her  imperious  spouse  a  chase  a  dozen  or 
twenty  times  around  the  aquarium,  avoiding  the  nest  as  ob- 
stinately as  she  had  before  eagerly  sought  it.  At  length  she 
relented,  and  entered  it  at  the  orifice  nearest  the  front  of  the 
aquarium.  Her  caudal  fin  alone  remained  visible,  and  I  noticed 
that  it  had  an  incessant  quivering  motion.  The  depositing  of 
the  spawn  lasted  aboiit  forty  seconds,  and  it  was  while  the 
male  excitedly  hovered  near  that  he  almost  literally  'turned 
as  white  as  a  sheet.'  As  she  glided  out  at  the  further  orifice 
he  entered  and  perfoi'med  his  functions,  also  passing  through 
the  nest.  Afterwards  he  closed  the  oi'ifice  and  commenced 
an  assiduity  of  attention  to  the  nest  that  was  most  surprising. 
Night  and  day  he  kept  guard  over  it  for  some  eighteen  days, — 
now  strengthening  its  walls  by  additional  stems  of  nitella,  now 
thrusting  his  nose  into  the  orifice  to  ascertain  that  the  seal 
had  not  been  violated ;  and  every  few  minutes  hovering  over 
it,  with  his  body  inclined  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees, 
fanning  it  with  his  pectoral  fins,  aided  by  a  lateral  motion  of 
his  tail.  At  length  the  young  appeared,  and  the  vigilance  of 
M.  gasterosteus  was  redoubled.  On  the  day  that  I  first  saw 
the  j'oung  ones,  which  I  am  pretty  sure  was  the  first  day  of 
their  appearance,  the  delighted  pater  familias  would  not  permit 
any  of  them  to  leave  the  mouth  of  the  nest,  the  orifice  to  which 
he  had  torn  open  for  them.  On  the  second  day  their  '  area  of 
freedom'  was  slightly  extended;  but  if  they  went  beyond  the 
limits  he  would  take  them  in  his  mouth,  as  a  cat  does  her 
kittens,  and  put  them  back  into  the  nest.  After  a  few  days, 
however,  he  no  longer  restrained  them  of  their  liberty.  Left 
to  themselves,  they  soon  spread  themselves  over  the  tank. 
I  estimated  their  number  at  more  than  two  hundred.  From 
the  time  his  parental  duties  ceased  began  the  decadence  of 


178  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

the  male's  brilliant  coloring.  As  for  the  female,  seemingly 
conscious  that  her  functions  were  entirely  at  an  end,  she  lay  at 
a  remote  part  of  the  tank,  concealed  by  a  root  of  vallisneria, 
never  venturing  near  her  husband  and  children.  In  fact,  when 
the  young  fry  began  to  extend  their  travels,  and  were  seem- 
ingly able  to  take  care  of  themselves,  I  removed  both  the 
parents  for  fear  of  accidents,  to  wit,  possible  infanticide, —  a 
precaution  I  recommend  in  all  similar  cases.  With  such  pos- 
itive evidence  that  the  male  stickleback  alone  'attends  to  the 
little  ones,'  I  could  only  smile  when  Mr.  Hancock,  a  naturalist 
of  some  eminence,  asserted,  in  an  interesting  and  otherwise 
very  correet  description  of  this  process  of  nidification  which 
appeared  in  The  Zoologist,  that  'it  required  all  the  mother's 
unremitting  exertions,  for  several  days  after  the  fry  were 
hatched,  to  keep  them  within  bounds,  so  as  to  preserve  them 
from  danger.'  Even  Dr.  Lankester  falls  into  a  similar  error, 
publishing  with  his  endorsement  a  communication  from  a  cor- 
respondent who  describes  'the  mother  fish'  as  'continuing  her 
attendance  at  the  nest  as  long  as  any  of  the  young  fry  were 
left.'  As  the  correspondent  was  a  woman,  the  mistake  was  a 
natural  one." 

Feeding  the  fish. —  Fish  in  a  well-arranged  tank  require  very 
little  food  beyond  that  which  is  naturally  produced  in  the 
water  in  which  they  live.  Certain  minute  crustaceans  (cyelops, 
water-fleas,  etc.)  breed  with  marvelous  rapidity;  and  as  they 
feed  upon  the  almost  invisible  animalculse,  which  in  turn  con- 
vert decaying  vegetables  into  their  food,  a  certain  round  or 
cycle  of  organic  life  is  thus  kept  up.  The  eggs  of  snails  also 
furnish  a  favorite  food;  and  if  a  few  "wigglers"  can  be  pro- 
eured  and  thrown  into  the  tank  the  fish  will  rarely  allow  tliem 
to  develop  into  mosquitoes.  The  plants  also  will  furnish  a 
certain  amount  of  food,  and  a  worm  or  two  occasionally  may 
be  given  to  them  by  way  of  "entree."  The  dealers  furnish  a 
kind  of  wafer  that  answers  well  for  most  fishes ;  and  we  have 
found  that  goldfish,  carp,  minnows,  and  vegetable  feeders  in 
general  are  very  fond  of  boiled  rice.     They  eat  it  greedily, 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  179 

aud  thrive  upon  it.  The  rice  is  boiled  in  water  until  quite 
soft,  then  drained  nearly  dry,  and,  of  course,  given  when  quite 
ccld.  The  boiled  rice-grains  resemble  grubs  in  ai^pearance, 
an  1  the  fish  make  for  them  at  once.  One  great  advantage  of 
boiled  rice  is  tliat  it  has  very  little  tendency  to  corrupt  the 
water. 

Aurum  Musivum,  or  Mosaicum.— This  compound  early 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  alchemists,  who  no  doubt  sup- 
posed, when  they  saw  it  come  from  their  crucibles,  that  they 
had  taken  a  long  stride  toward  the  discovery  of  the  philos- 
opher's stone,  and  that  one  step  more  would  enable  them  to 
convert  tin  into  veritable  gold.  So  they  called  this  strange 
gold-like  compound  aurum  musivum,  or  mosaic  gold.  It  is  in 
reality  a  disulphide  of  tin,  aud  is  made  as  follows : — 

1.  Melt  12  Gz.  of  tin  and  add  to  it  3  oz.  of  mercury;  triturate 
this  amalgam  with  7  oz.  of  sulphur  and  3  oz.  or  sal  ammoniac. 
Put  the  powder  into  a  mattrass,*  bedded  rather  deep  in  sand, 
and  keep  it  for  several  hours  in  a  gentle  heat,  which  is  after- 
wards to  be  raised  and  continued  for  several  hours  longer. 
If  the  heat  has  been  moderate,  and  not  continued  too  long, 
the  golden-colored,  scaly,  porous  mass,  called  aurum  musivum, 
will  be  found  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel ;  but  if  it  has  been 
too  strong,  the  aurum  musivum  fuses  to  a  black  mass,  of  a 
striated  texture. 

2.  Melt  together,  in  a  crucible  over  a  clear  fire,  equal  parts 
of  sulphur  and  the  white  oxide  of  tin.  Keep  them  constantly 
stirred  with  the  stem  of  an  earthenware  pipe  or  glass  rod  till 
they  assume  the  appearance  of  a  yellow  flaky  powder.  In 
stirring  the  mixture  avoid  the  use  of  an  iron  rod,  as  it  would 
destroy  the  compound. 

*  A  mattrass  is  a  glass  flask  with  a  loug  neck.  Any  thin  bottle  of  green 
glass  will  answer  if  it  is  bedded  well  in  sand,  so  tliat  it  may  not  be  exposed 
to  sudden  changes  of  temperature.  We  have  made  very  fine  mosaic  gold 
in  two  common  clay  crucibles  placed  mouth  to  mouth  and  luted  together. 
(See  article  Lute.)  In  the  upper  crucible  we  bored  a  small  hole  for  the 
escape  of  valors,  and  the  whole  was  placed  inside  a  larger  crucible,  the 
space  between  being  filled  with  sand.    No  metallic  vessel  will  answer. 


180  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION, 

Mosaic  gold  is  used  as  a  color  or  bronze  for  coating  plaster- 
of-paris  images,  and  also  as  a  gold  varnish  on  toys,  and  like- 
wise for  the  sparkles  or  spangles  in  that  which  is  called  gold 
sealing-wax.  Of  late  years,  however,  the  manufacture  of 
bronze-powders  has  been  so  much  improved  that  they  have 
driven  the  mosaic  gold  entirely  out  of  the  market.  In  the 
laboratory  it  is  still  used  for  coating  the  rubbers  of  electrical 
machines,  as  it  produces  powerful  excitations,  requires  no 
grease,  and  does  not  stick  to  the  glass. 

Authorship. —  Authorship  consists  of  two  distinct  depart- 
ments: first,  the  possession  of  good  ideas;  and  second,  the 
getting  of  them  into  a  form  fit  for  publication.  In  regard  to 
the  first,  we  can  offer  no  help ;  but  we  would  earnestly  caution 
our  readers  against  attempting  to  become  authors  until  they 
have  something  really  worth  offering  to  the  public.  Young 
people,  especially  those  who  are  inclined  to  write  poetry,  are 
most  frequently  sinners  in  this  respect,  though  we  must  say 
that  in  too  many  eases  it  is  more  the  fault  of  others  than  of 
themselves  that  they  try  to  get  into  print.  Impelled  by  a  mere 
desire  to  put  their  thoughts  on  paper,  and  for  their  own  grat- 
ification, they  produce  a  piece  of  rhyme  and  show  it  to  their 
friends,  who  all  go  into  ecstasies  over  it  and  urge  them  to 
publish  It  is  then  submitted  to  the  preacher  and  the  teacher 
of  the  village,  who  both  pronounce  it  finer  than  anything  that 
Moore  or  BjTon  ever  wrote,  and  forthwith  it  is  sent  to  the 
editor  of  some  paper.  If  the  paper  is  published  in  a  small 
place  and  has  a  small  circulation,  the  editor  will  probably  be 
glad  to  get  it,  not  for  its  own  sake,  but  because  the  friends  of 
the  poet  will  no  doubt  purchase  a  few  copies,  and  he  may 
even  secure  two  or  three  new  subscribers.  The  poor  author 
is  thus  victimized  and  made  to  believe  that  he  or  she  is  a 
rising  genius;  and  when  other  editors,  having  greater  knowl- 
edge and  free  from  personal  bias,  refuse  the  doggerel,  which 
is  sure  to  be  thereafter  copiously  produced,  it  is  claimed  at 
once  that  such  rejection  arises  from  prejudice  and  all  sorts  of 
bad  reasons.     Now  let  it  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  would  prob- 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  181 

ably  be  difficult  to  select  three  worse  judges  than  the  preacher, 
the  teacher,  and  the  editor,  of  a  country  village.  In  the  first 
place,  they  are  rarely  able  to  form  a  sound  judgment  of  any- 
thing out  of  their  own  special  line.  This  is  shown  by  the 
readiness  with  which  their  names  are  secured  as  endorsements 
to  every  claptrap  that  comes  along.  And  in  the  second  place, 
they  are  apt  to  be  swayed  by  a  desire  to  favor  a  friend  and 
neighbor.  Of  course  there  may  be  marked  exceptions,  but 
in  a  pretty  wide  experience  we  have  generally  found  it  as 
stated. 

Assuming,  however,  that  you  have  something  to  say  which 
the  public  is  interested  in  hearing,  the  following  hints  will 
enable  you  to  get  your  manuscript  into  presentable  shape: — 

1.  Select  a  proper-sized  paper,  not  very  large  nor  very  small, 
.and  never  write  on  waste  scraps.  Ordinary  commercial  note- 
;^  ;,per,  which  maybe  had  cheaply  in  packages,  is  a  very  suitable 
size.  Use  single  leaflets.  Do  not  make  your  manuscript  up 
into  book-form,  with  the  pages  from  the  beginning  to  the  end 
of  the  article  attached  to  each  other.  Above  all,  carefully 
number  each  page  consecutively. 

2.  Use  a  good  black  ink ;  pale  ink  or  fancy  colored  inks  are 
an  abomination.  The  only  exception  to  this  is  the  use  of  dark 
violet  ink.  Ink  of  this  kind  dries  rapidly,  consequently  it 
needs  no  blotter,  and  is  liked  much  by  some  authoru.  There 
can  be  no  objection  to  it. 

3.  Write  only  on  one  side  of  the  paper. 

4.  Write  a  plain,  bold  hand,  giving  more  attention  to  dis- 
tinctness and  legibility  than  to  beauty.  Remember  that  the 
manuscript  will  come  back  to  you  soiled  and  crumpled  and 
fit  only  for  the  waste  basket,  while  the  printed  copy  may 
endure  for  ages,  and  an  error  caused  by  illegible  manuscript 
may  annoy  yourself  and  friends  years  after  your  "beautiful" 
manuscript  has  been  consumed  by  fire. 

5.  Leave  ample  margin  on  one  side  of  each  sheet  for  correc- 
tions. 

6.  See  that  the  paper  is  wide  ruled. 


182  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

7.  Use  no  abbreviations  which  are  not  to  appear  in  print. 

8.  Punctuate  the  manuscript  as  it  should  be  printed. 

9.  For  italics,  underscore  with  one  line ;  for  small  capitals, 
with  two  lines ;  for  CAPITALS,  with  three  lines. 

10.  Never  interline  without  the  caret  to  show  its  place. 

11.  Take  special  pains  with  every  letter  in  proper  names. 

12.  Review  every  word,  to  be  sure  that  none  is  illegible. 

13.  Put  directions  to  the  printer  at  the  head  of  the  first  page. 

14.  Do  not  write  long  articles,  or  long  sentences.  Write  as 
you  would  a  telegram,  where  each  word  costs  a  dime ;  or  as 
an  advertisement  which  costs  a  dollar  a  line. 

15.  Do  not  ask  an  editor  to  return  your  manuscript.  Keep 
a  copy.  With  a  hundred  letters  a  day  to  read,  he  has  some- 
thing to  do  besides  hunting  up  last  year's  manuscripts, —  re- 
ceived, rejected,  and  buried  or  burned  long  ago. 

16.  Never  write  a  private  letter  to  the  editor  on  the  printer's 
copy,  but  always  on  a  separate  sheet. 

Finally,  do  not  say,  "I  write  in  a  hurry;  please  correct  all 
■  mistakes."  You  have  ten  times  the  opportunity  to  do  this 
that  the  editor  has.  His  time  is  worth  from  fifty  cents  to  ten 
dollars  an  hour,  and  he  will  be  likely  to  correct  your  errors 
by  fire,  and  then  they  will  never  trouble  any  one  any  more. 
You  must  do  your  own  work  if  you  want  it  done.  Some  poor 
printer  has  to  set  up  the  type  for  your  article.  Every  cent 
you  save  by  using  pale  ink,  poor  paper,  and  writing  carelessly 
because  you  are  in  a  hurry,  or  writing  finely,  or  crosswise,  to 
save  two  cents  postage,  will  cost  the  printer  in  toil,  delay,  and 
eyesight,  at  least  fifty  times  as  much  money  as  you  will  save, 
besides  causing  him  to  commit  blunders  for  you  to  scold 
about. 

The  above  hints  are  specially  intended  for  those  who  write 
for  the  periodicals  of  different  kinds.  Similar  I'ules  apply  to 
the  preparation  of  manuscript  for  books.  See  tha'^  the  man- 
uscript is  perfect  before  it  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  com- 
positor. Time  is  charged  on  all  corrections,  alterations,  and 
additions  made  in  the  proof,  which  are  not  in  the  original 


THE   WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  183 

copy.  A  very  little  change  takes  up  more  time  than  is  gen- 
erally supposed.  The  insertion  or  removal  of  a  word  or  two 
may  require  the  overrunning  of  every  line  in  a  long  paragraph ; 
the  adding  or  taking  out  of  a  sentence,  the  overrunning  of 
every  page  set  up  which  follows  it.  All  this  can  be  avoided 
by  having  the  manuscript  carefully  prepared.  The  time-work 
charged  on  a  badly  prepared  manuscript  will  often  exceed  the 
cost  of  having  it  fairly  copied  by  a  clerk. 

Leave  a  wide  margin,  on  which  can  be  written  directions  for 
the  compositor  and  minor  corrections.  Marginal  corrections 
are  preferable  to  interlineations.  When  they  are  too  long  to 
go  in  the  margin  write  them  on  a  separate  piece  of  paper, 
marking  it  with  the  page,  and  indicating  on  the  page  the  place 
where  it  is  to  be  inserted.  Write  on  the  margin  the  amount 
of  space,  if  any,  desired  between  paragraphs  or  divisions,  for 
the  insertion  of  additional  authorities,  etc. 

Attend  to  your  own  punctuation,  marking  each  point  dis- 
tinctly. Remember  the  old  craft-pun,  that  "compositors  are 
setters,  not  pointers,"— their  duty  is  to  "follow  copy."  The 
whole  force  of  a  paragraph  may  be  destroyed  by  careless  punc- 
tuation. 

Authors  should  always  make  the  beginning  of  a  new  para- 
graph conspicuous  to  the  compositor  by  indenting  the  first  line 
of  it  far  enough  to  distinguish  it  from  the  preceding  line  in 
case  the  latter  should  be  quite  full. 

Make  a  final  careful  revision  of  the  manuscript  before  hand- 
ing it  in.  It  is  said  that  Newton  wrote  his  chronology  over 
fifteen  times  before  he  was  satisfied  with  it ;  and  Gibbon  wrote 
out  his  memoir  nine  times  before  sending  it  to  the  press.  No 
beginners  can  expect  better  success  or  less  labor  than  such 
learned  men. 

Estimating  Amount  of  Matter  in  Manuscript.—  A  tolerably 
close  estimate  of  the  words  contained  in  even  bad  manuscript 
may  be  made  by  counting  the  lines  of  say  twelve  of  its  varying 
pages,  then  getting  an  average  per  line  of  the  words  in  several 
lines  taken  Irom  each  page,  and  multiplying  the  number  of 


184  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

the  former  by  that  of  the  latter.  Next  add  the  average  allow- 
ance for  chapter-liues,  sub-heads,  and  other  break-lines,  count- 
ing them  as  full  lines.  Reduce  the  break-lines  to  full  lines, 
adding  them  to  the  whole,  and  you  have  the  contents  of  twelve 
pages.  Divide  by  twelve  to  find  the  contents  of  a  single 
(average)  page. 

For  example,  a  work  of  400  pages  in  manuscript  is  submitted. 
Twelve  average  pages,  taken  at  intervals,  give  an  average  of 
30  lines  to  a  folio.  Three  lines  taken  at  various  places  froni 
each  of  these  twelve  pages  indicate  an  average  of  eleven  words 
to  a  line.  This  will  give  about  330  words  to  a  page,  exclusive 
of  breaks,  chapter  and  other  lines,  for  which  an  allowance  is 
made  of  four  lines,  or  44  words,  for  each  page  of  manuscript, 
which,  added  to  330,  makes  374.  Multiply  the  374  words  per 
page  by  the  400  pages  in  the  manuscript,  and  you  have  a  result 
of  149,600  words  in  all. 

To  know  how  many  pages  of  printed  matter  this  will  make, 
it  is  now  necessary  to  have  the  size  of  type  and  page  to  be 
used.  An  exact  printed  page,  containing  the  one  and  repre- 
senting the  other,  is  always  a  good  guide  in  completing  the 
calculation,  which  is  done  by  dividing  the  number  of  words 
contained  in  the  manuscript  by  that  of  the  printed  page.  This 
will  give  the  desired  cast-off  for  the  work  in  printed  pages. 

Thus,  the  estimate  of  the  manuscript  gives  149,600  words; 
that  of  the  printed  page  of  the  size  required — set  up  in  leaded 
long  primer,  we  will  say  for  example — gives  480  words ;  con- 
sequently 149,600  divided  by  480  gives  312  pages,  or  20  sheets, 
if  printed  in  octavo. 

When  extra  or  more  than  single  "leading"  of  matter  is  re- 
quired, count  the  extra  leads  (six-to-pica  being  the  size  most 
used  in  book-composition)  in  the  following  proportions:  three 
for  a  nonpareil  line ;  four  for  brevier  and  bourgeois ;  five  for 
long  primer  and  small  pica;  six  for  pica;  and  so  on,  increas- 
ing or  diminishing  in  the  necessary  ratio  for  larger  or  lesser 
sizes. 

For  works  under  144  pages,  the  cast-off  of  which  does  not 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  185 

reach  a  number  of  folios  divisible  by  4,  there  should  be  added 
the  number  that  will  make  it  so.  Thus,  110  will  be  counted 
as  112;  134  as  136;  aud  so  on.  A  sufficient  allowance  of  pages, 
added  in  the  same  way,  should  be  made  in  cast-offs  for  larger 
works,  adopting  8  or  12  as  the  even  dividing  number.  This 
rule  applies  more  particularly  to  works  where  the  copy  is  very 
irregular  or  much  crowded  with  abbreviations  and  closely 
written  notes,  alterations,  interlines,  etc. 

Babbitt's  Anti-attrition  Metal. —  This  lias  long  been  a 
favorite  alloy  for  forming  bearings  for  the  journals  of  shafts, 
etc.  The  large  proportion  of  tin  which  it  contains  renders  it 
essentially  anti-friction,  while  the  copper  and  antimony  render 
it  hard  enough  for  light  work.  When  the  bearings  have  to 
cany  a  great  weight,  however,  the  Babbitt  metal  is  too  soft, 
and  yields  under  the  pressure.  To  keep  it  in  place  and  give 
it  strength  enough,  the  inventor  uses  cast-iron  boxes  having 
one  or  more  recesses  or  cups  for  the  reception  of  the  soft 
metal,  which  is  not  only  cast  in  place,  but  so  managed  that  it 
shall  be  literally  brazed  or  soldered  to  the  more  rigid  cast-iron. 
The  following  are  the  directions  given  by  the  inventor  for  pre- 
paring and  using  this  metal : — 

"In  the  first  place,  I  melt  four  pounds  of  copper;  and  when 
melted,  add  by  degrees  twelve  pounds  best  quality  Banea  tin ; 
then  add  eight  pounds  regulus  of  antimony;  and  then  twelve 
pounds  more  of  tin,  while  the  composition  is  in  a  melted 
state. 

"After  the  copper  is  melted,  and  four  or  five  pounds  of  tin 
have  been  added,  the  heat  should  be  lowered  to  a  dull  red  heat, 
in  order  to  prevent  oxidation ;  then  add  the  remainder  of  the 
metal,  as  above  named. 

"In  melting  the  composition,  it  is  better  to  keep  a  small 
quantity  of  powdered  charcoal  in  the  pot,  on  the  surface  of  the 
metal. 

"1  make  the  above  composition  in  the  first  place,  which  I 
call  hardening;  then,  as  I  want  to  use  for  lining-work,  I  take 
one  pound  of  the  hardening  and  melt  with  two  pounds  Banea 


186  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

tin,  which  produces  the  lining-metal  I  now  use,  which  I  con- 
sider the  best  1  have  ever  used.  So  that  the  proportions  foi 
lining-metal  is  four  pounds  copper,  eight  regulus  of  antimony, 
and  ninety-six  pounds  tin. 

"The  object  I  have  in  first  preparing  the  hardening,  as  above 
mentioned,  is  economy ;  for  when  the  whole  is  melted  together, 
I  find  there  is  a  great  waste  of  metal,  as  the  hardening  is  melted 
at  a  much  less  degree  of  heat  than  the  copper  and  antimony 
separately. 

"I  find,  in  my  practice,  that  in  melting  the  lining-metal,  or 
tin  for  tinning  the  boxes,  there  is  some  oxidation  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  metal,  which  should  be  skimmed  off.  This  oxide 
I  save,  and,  when  I  get  a  quantity,  put  it  into  a  black-lead 
crucible,  add  about  one  tenth  in  bulk  of  pounded  charcoal, 
expose  it  to  a  smart  red  heat,  which  brings  it  back  again  to 
metal  fit  for  use. 

"The  box  or  article  to  be  lined,  having  been  cast  with  a 
recess  for  soft  metal,  is  to  be  nicely  fitted  to  a  former,  which 
is  made  the  same  shape  as  the  bearing,  except  being  a  hair 
larger  than  the  bearing. 

"Drill  a  hole  in  the  box  for  the  reception  of  the  metal,  say 
half  or  three  quarters  of  an  inch,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
box.  The  box  having  been  thus  prepared,  coat  over  the  part 
not  to  be  tinned  with  a  clay  wash;  wet  the  part  to  be  tinned 
with  alcohol,  and  sprinkle  on  sal  ammoniac,  ground  as  fine  as 
common  table  salt.  Heat  the  box  till  a  fume  arises  from  the 
sal  ammoniac,  and  immerse  it  in  a  kettle  of  Banca  tin  melted, 
care  being  taken  not  to  heat  it  so  that  it  oxidizes. 

"After  the  box  is  tinned,  should  it  have  a  colored  appear- 
ance, sprinkle  a  little  sal  ammoniac,  which  will  make  it  of  a 
bright  silver  color,  and  cool  it  gradually  in  water ;  then  take 
the  former,  to  which  the  box  has  been  fitted,  and  coat  it  over 
with  a  thin  clay  wash,  and  warm  it  so  that  it  will  be  perfectly 
dry ;  heat  the  box  until  the  tin  begins  to  melt ;  lay  it  on  the 
former  and  pour  in  the  metal,  which  should  not  be  so  hot  as 
to  oxidize,  giving  the  metal  a  head,  so  that  as  it  shrinks  up  it 


THE  WOEKSHOP  COMPANION.  18t 

will  fill  up.  After  it  is  sufficiently  cool  take  it  off  the  former 
and  scour  the  box,  so  that  there  may  be  no  sand  or  dirt  on  it, 
which  would  injure  the  bearing. 

"A  shorter  method  may  be  adopted  when  the  work  is  light 
enough  to  handle  quickly,  viz.,  when  the  box  is  prepared  for 
tinning  it  may  be  immersed  in  the  lining-metal  instead  of  the 
tin,  brushed  lightly  in  order  to  remove  the  sal  ammoniac  from 
the  surface,  placed  immediately  on  the  former,  and  lined  with 
the  same  heat." 

Balloon.—  As  a  means  of  aerial  navigation,  in  the  proper 
sense  of  that  term,  the  balloon  is  now  generally  acknowledged 
to  be  useless  or  worse  than  useless ;  but  as  an  instrument  for 
observation,  whether  in  the  operations  of  war  or  the  purposes 
of  meteorology,  it  is  of  great  value.  And  as  small  captive 
balloons  are  easily  constructed,  at  small  expense,  they  will  no 
doubt  come  into  more  general  use  in  the  future.  A  balloon 
eight  feet  in  diameter,  filled  with  gas,  will  carry  up  quite  a 
number  of  efficient  instruments  for  recording  temperature, 
pressure,  electrical  condition,  etc. 

The  art  of  ballooning  depends  upon  the  difference  between 
the  weights  of  the  same  bulk  of  air  and  that  of  some  of  the 
lighter  gases.  Thus  pure  hydrogen,  weighed  under  similar 
conditions,  is  about  16  times  lighter  than  common  air;  but 
when  prepared  on  the  large  scale,  and  containing  water,  air, 
and  other  impurities,  it  is  only  from  7  to  11  times  lighter  than 
the  atmosphere.  A  cubic  foot  of  atmospheric  air  at  the  level 
of  the  sea  weighs  .07609  lb.;  a  similar  globe  of  hydrogen  (reck- 
oning it  only  as  6  times  lighter  than  common  air),  will  there- 
fore have  an  ascensional  force  of  .063  lb.,  or  rather  more  than 
an  ounce.  Now,  the  weight  of  the  body  of  air  which  a  balloon 
displaces  must  exceed  the  gross  weight  of  the  balloon,  its  con- 
tents, and  all  its  appendages,  in  order  for  the  latter  to  ascend 
in  the  atmosphere.  The  difference  of  the  two  weights  ex- 
presses the  ascensional  force.  In  round  numbers  the  buoyancy 
of  a  balloon  may  be  reckoned  as  equal  to  1  oz.  for  every  cubic 
foot  of  hydrogen  it  contains,  less  the  weight  of  the  case  and 


188  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

appendages.  The  carburetted  hydrogen  supplied  by  the  gas- 
works is  much  heavier  than  hydrogen  gas,  and  consequently 
much  less  buoyant,  for  which  due  allowance  must  be  made. 
That  which  possesses  the  least  illuminating  power  is  the  light- 
est, and  consequently  best  adapted  for  aerostation. 

The  aerostatic  power  of  balloons  is  proportional  to  their 
dimensions  in  the  ratio  of  their  contents,  and  this  is  as  the 
ratio  of  the  cubes  of  their  diameters.  Thus  it  will  be  found 
that  a  balloon  of  60  feet  diameter  filled  with  common  hydrogen 
will  ascend  with  a  weight  of  nearly  7,000  lbs.,  besides  the  gas- 
case,  whilst  one  of  only  li  foot  in  diameter  will  barely  float, 
owing  to  the  less  proportionate  volume  of  gas  to  the  weight 
of  the  case  containing  it. 

The  following  table  shows  the  relations  between  the  diam- 
eters, surfaces,  and  capacities  of  spheres: — 


Diameters. 

Surfaces. 

Cubical  contents. 

1 

3-141 

•523 

2 

12-567 

4-188 

3 

28-274 

14-137 

4 

50-265 

33-51 

5 

78-54 

65-45 

10 

314159 

523-6 

15 

706-9 

1767-1 

20 

1256-6 

4189- 

25 

1963-5 

8181- 

30 

2827- 

14137- 

40 

5026- 

33510- 

The  fabric  of  which  the  cases  of  air-balloons  are  made  is 
strong  thin  silk,  covered  with  an  elastic  varnish  of  drying  oil 
or  india-rubber,  or,  what  is  better,  a  solution  of  india-rubber 
in  either  chloroform  or  bisulphide  of  carbon ;  the  netting  is  of 
strong  light  silk  or  flaxen  cord,  and  the  car  of  basket-work. 
Fire-balloons,  on  the  small  scale,  are  generally  made  of  tissue- 
paper,  and  are  inflated  with  the  fumes  of  burning  alcohol,  by 
means  of  a  sponge  dipped  in  that  liquid  and  suspended  just 
within  the  mouth  of  the  apparatus. 

Owing  to  the  increasing  rarity  of  the  atmosphere  as  we 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  189 

ascend  from  the  earth's  surface,  balloon-cases  are  made  very 
much  larger  than  is  required  to  contain  the  necessary  quantity 
of  gas,  to  allow  for  its  expansion  as  it  rises  into  a  rarer  me- 
dium. A  cubical  foot  of  gas  measured  at  the  level  of  the  sea 
occupies  a  space  of  two  feet  at  an  elevation  of  Ss  miles. 

Soap-biihhie  Balloons.— ^1.  Delon,  of  Paris,  prodtices  miniature 
balloons  by  means  of  ordinary  gas  conducted  through  a  caout- 
chouc tube  and  clay  pipe  to  glycerine  soap  solution.  A  small 
disk  of  thin  paper,  with  fine  wire  from  its  center  to  a  little 
paper  car  with  aeronaut  figures,  is  connected  to  the  bubble 
when  it  begins  to  swell,  the  disk  being  attached  by  capillarity 
to  the  part  where  the  drop  forms.  The  detached  bubble  rises 
with  its  car. 

Bast.—  Bast,  or  bass,  is  the  inner  bark  of  various  species  of 
the  linden.  It  is  used  in  Europe  (chiefly  in  Russia)  largely  for 
manufacturing  mats,  which  form  a  most  excellent  protective 
covering  for  plants,  etc.,  securing  them  against  frost  and  cold. 
It  is  also  used  quite  extensively  in  horticulture  for  tying  up 
plants  and  for  binding  grafts,  etc.  Its  soft  ribbon-like  char- 
acter renders  it  peculiarly  valuable  for  this  purpose,— far 
superior  to  twine,  osiers,  etc. 

A  very  excellent  article  of  bast  may  be  obtained  from  the 
basswood  of  this  country.  The  outer  bark  having  been  stripped 
off  and  soaked  in  water,  the  inner  bark  separates  in  long  rib- 
bons, which  are  then  dried  and  stored  away  for  use. 

Bedbugs. —  Bedbugs  are  not  only  disgusting  and  annoying, 
but  absolutely  dangerous,  as  their  bites  and  poison  have  been 
known  to  cause  severe  fevers  in  persons  of  sensitive  organiza- 
tion. Some  persons  seem  to  be  perfectly  proof  against  them  ; 
others  seem  to  attract  these  vermin  so  strongly  that  if  there 
should  be  a  single  bug  in  the  house  in  which  they  sleep  they 
are  sure  to  be  bitten.  And  while  it  is  true  that  under  ordinfiry 
conditions  the  tidy  and  industrious  housewife  finds  no  difficulty 
in  keeping  her  rooms  and  furniture  free  from  them,  yet  it  is 
equally  true  that  there  are  occasions  on  which  the  most  expert 
will  have  their  powers  and  ingenuity  taxed  to  the  utmost. 


190  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

Suoh  occasions  arise  when  from  long  immunity  the  house- 
keeper feels  secure  and  allows  her  vigilance  to  relax;  then  a 
few  prolific  specimens  are  introduced  by  some  accident,  and 
before  the  family  is  aware  of  the  trouble  certain  rooms  and 
even  the  whole  house  will  be  overrun  with  them.  Under  such 
circumstances  thorough  and  vigorous  work  will  be  needed ; 
and  to  secure  efficiency  it  is  necessary  in  this  as  in  every  other 
case  in  which  we  have  to  deal  with  vermin  that  we  should  be 
thoroughly  informed  as  to  their  habits  and  life-history. 

English  authorities  claim  that  the  bedbug  is  a  native  of 
America,  and  that  it  was  not  known  in  London  prior  to  the 
great  fire  which  destroyed  that  city.  It  is  further  said  that 
the  bug  was  introduced  in  the  wood  used  to  eo'-.struct  the  new 
dwellings.  LinniBus  also  was  of  the  opinion  that  the  bedbug 
is  a  native  of  America.  In  Mather's  Bible  that  passage  in  tlie 
Psalms  which,  in  our  version,  reads  "Thou  shalt  not  be  afraid 
of  the  terror  by  night"  is  translated  "Thou  shalt  not  nede  to 
be  afraid  of  any  bugs  by  night."  The  word  "bug"  here  means 
bugbear. 

It  has  been  generally  supposed  that  bedbugs  are  partial  to 
old  houses,  but  Westwood  tells  us  that  "it  is  certain  that  they 
swarm  in  the  American  timber  employed  in  the  construction 
of  new  houses;  and  it  is  said  that  they  feed  upon  the  sap  of 
that  wood."  We  ourselves  have  frequently  found  them  in  the 
woods  in  the  bark  of  pine  timber,  far  from  any  human  hab- 
itation. 

The  eggs  of  the  bedbug  are  white,  of  an  oval  form,  slightly 
narrowed  at  one  end,  and  terminated  by  a  cap  which  breaks 
off  when  the  young  escape.  These  eggs  are  most  beautiful 
objects  under  the  microscope.  The  young  are  very  small, 
white,  and  transparent,  so  that  the  circulation  of  the  blood  is 
easily  seen  in  the  insect  at  this  stage. 

There  seems  to  be  quite  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the 
length  of  time  that  they  can  exis^  without  food.  Dufour  says 
tliey  live  but  a  short  time;  De  Geer  tells  us  that  he  has  kept 
full-grown  specimens  for  more  than  a  year  in  a  sealed-up 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  191 

bottle  without  food.  We  never  could  succeed  in  keeping  them 
as  long  as  that ;  but  since  they  can  subsist  on  various  vege- 
table matters  no  one  need  have  any  hope  of  starving  them  out. 
The  only  way  to  get  rid  of  them  when  tliey  have  got  a  foot- 
hold, and  to  keep  rid  of  them,  is  to  destroy  every  specimen 
that  can  be  found.  Fortunately  this  is  not  a  very  difficult 
task. 

There  are  several  very  efficient  methods  of  destroying  bed- 
bugs, and  we  shall  describe  them  in  the  order  of  their 
efficiency. 

Fumigation  ivith  Sulphur  Fumes. — This  is  decidedly  the  most 
effective  method,  though  it  involves  more  trouble  than  any 
other,  and  is  more  liable  to  produce  injury.  To  fumigate  a 
house  or  room,  all  the  valuable  furniture  and  everything  that 
can  be  injured  by  the  acid  fumes  must  be  removed,  and  all 
crevices  must  be  stopped  up  so  that  the  gas  can  not  escape 
until  it  has  done  its  work.  Then  a  good  fire  is  made  in  a  small 
portable  stove,  which  should  be  placed  on  bricks  or  on  a  large 
board  well  covered  with  earth.  When  the  fire  is  at  its  best, — 
that  is  to  say,  when  the  fuel  has  been  thoroughly  ignited, — lay 
on  a  few  pieces  of  roll  brimstone  and  immediately  leave  the 
room,  closing  the  door  tightly.  In  a  few  hours  the  acid  vapors 
will  have  penetrated  every  hole  and  crevice;  and  all  animal 
life,  from  the  rat  or  mouse  to  the  disease-germ,  will  have  been 
destroyed.  Rats  and  mice,  however,  generally  run  away;  but 
insects  remain  and  are  killed.  As  soon  as  the  fumes  have 
done  their  work  the  room  should  be  thoroughly  ventilated  and 
cleaned. 

The  objections  to  the  use  of  sulphur  fumes  in  a  house  are 
that  they  destroy  coiors,  cause  metals  to  rust,  and  are  generally 
injurious.  All  metals  that  can  not  be  removed  should  be  cov- 
ered with  paraffine-paper,  and  the  keyholes  should  likewise  be 
covered,  and  if  the  bugs  have  got  into  the  locks  remove  them. 
For  these  obvious  reasons  this  method  should  be  used  only  as 
a  means  of  last  resort.  Foi'tunately  we  have  other  agents 
nearly  as  good. 


192  THE   WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

Corrosive  Sublimate. —  Corrosive  sublimate,  or  bichloride  of 
mercury,  is  probably  the  most  effective  poison  that  we  have. 
For  ordinary  purposes  it  is  used  in  solution  in  water;  but  as 
water  does  not  readily  moisten  dusty  or  oily  spots,  a  solution 
in  alcohol  is  far  superior.  Dissolve  an  ounce  of  sublimate  in 
a  quart  of  alcohol,  and  brush  this  over  cracks,  joints,  and  any 
other  inaccessible  retreat  of  the  bugs.  The  liquid  will  pen- 
etrate into  joints  and  crevices  at  once,  and,  which  is  of  moi-e 
jimportance,  the  alcohol  will  carry  the  poison  into  the  eggs  of 
these  vermin  and  thus  destroy  the  young.  One  or  two  thorough 
applications  will  destroy  every  vestige  of  these  pests. 

Remember  that  this  solution  is  a  rank  poison,  and  it  should 
be  kept  out  of  the  way  of  children  and  animals. 

Various  other  solutions  have  been  recommended,  but  they 
are  all  so  far  inferior  to  the  bichloride  that  it  would  be  a  waste 
of  space  to  name  them.  The  alcoholic  solution  of  the  sub- 
limate does  not  injure  anything  except  varnishes  and  metals. 
Therefore  it  should  not  be  applied  to  them.  For  varnished 
surfaces  use  a  strong  decoction  of  tobacco  in  water. 

The  following  is  the  common  formula  for  compounding 
"bug-poison": — 

Corrosive  sublimate  (in  powder)  and  hydrochloric  acid,  of 
each  1  oz.;  hot  water,  |  pint;  agitate  them  together  until  the 
first  is  completely  dissolved.  It  is  applied  with  a  paint-brush, 
observing  to  rub  it  well  into  the  cracks  and  joints.  This  is  tlie 
common  "bug-wash"  of  the  shops.    It  is  a  deadly  poison. 

Gray,  in  his  "Supplement  to  the  Pharmacopoeia,"  gives  the 
following  recipes: — 

1.  Alcohol,  1  pint;  camphor,  2  oz.;  oil  of  turpentine,  4  oz.; 
corrosive  sublimate,  1  oz.     Mix. 

2.  Olive  oil,  8  oz.;  oil  of  turpentine  and  beeswax,  of  each 
2  oz.;  sal  ammoniac,  arsenic,  and  corrosive  sublimate,  of  each 
1  oz.  Melt  the  wax  and  oils  together,  and  then  stir  in  the 
other  ingredients,  in  powder,  stirring  until  the  mixture  is  cold. 

Insect  Powder. —  The  least  offensive  and  injurious  applica- 
tion is  the  ordinary  insect  powder.     When  thoroughly  applied 


THE   WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  193 

it  is  very  effective,  but  it  does  not  seem  to  destroy  the  young 
insects  in  the  eggs ;  and  therefore  to  make  thorough  work  we 
must  use  a  series  of  applications,  so  as  to  destroy  the  young 
broods  as  fast  as  they  appear. 

Having  once  got  rid  of  them  every  care  should  be  taken  to 
prevent  their  reappearance.  The  most  effective  way  of  doing 
this  is  to  remove  all  old  and  loose  paper  from  the  walls,  and 
see  that  all  crevices  are  filled  up  with  good  hard  putty,  which 
should  be  lime  for  walls  and  hard  putty  for  woodwork.  The 
woodwork  and  also  the  walls  should  be  well  painted  with  good 
oil  paint,  and  special  pains  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the 
cracks  in  the  floor  are  well  stopped.  Then,  with  vigilance  and 
plenty  of  good  soap  and  water  the  housekeeper  may  bid  defi- 
ance to  "the  terror  that  walketh  by  night." 

Birch-bark  (Oil  of).— It  has  long  been  a  well-known  fact 
that  Russia  leather  owes  its  durability,  as  well  as  its  peculiar 
odor,  to  the  oil  of  birch-bark,  with  which  it  is  dressed.  The 
whole  process  seems  to  be  pretty  well  understood,  and  has 
been  for  a  long  time, — the  great  difficulty  in  the  way  being 
the  labor  required  in  the  preparation  of  the  oil.  It  is  only 
from  the  thin  paper-like  bark  of  the  birch  that  the  oil  can  be 
procured;  the  wood  and  the  coarser  bark  of  the  birch  yield 
only  a  stinking  oil,  totally  unlike  the  oil  of  the  external  bark. 
Gray,  in  his  "Operative  Chemist,"  describes  the  process  of 
preparing  this  oil,  as  follows: — 

The  Russians  obtain  this  oil  by  filling  a  large  earthen  pot 
with  the  thin,  whitisli,  paper-like  external  bark  of  the  birch 
tree,  carefully  separated  from  the  coarse  bark,  closing  tlie 
mouth  of  this  pot  with  a  wooden  bung  pierced  with  several 
holes;  and  then  turning  it  over  and  luting  it  with  clay  to  tlie 
mouth  of  another  of  the  same  size.  A  hole  being  dug  in  the 
ground,  the  empty  pot  is  buried  in  it  and  a  fire  is  lighted  round 
and  over  the  pot  containing  the  bark,  which  is  continued  for 
some  hours,  according  to  the  size  of  the  pot.  When  the  ap- 
paratus is  cooled  and  unluted,  the  lower  pot  contains  the  brown 


194  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

oil,  mixed  with  pyroligneous  tar,  and  swimming  on  an  acid 
liquid. 

In  some  places  iron  pots  are  used  for  this  purpose,  and  the 
bark  is  hindered  from  falling  into  the  lower  pot  by  a  plate  of 
iron  pierced  with  holes.  Gray  says  that  one  hundred  pounds 
of  bark  yield  about  sixty  pounds  of  oil. 

The  waste  of  fuel  in  this  process  might  be  avoided  by  placing 
the  pots  in  the  side  chamber  of  a  reverberatory  furnace,  filling 
the  chamber  a  little  above  the  joining  of  the  jiots  with  sand, 
and  then  proceeding  to  distillation. 

This  oil  is  used  in  Russia  for  currying  leather,  to  which  it 
gives  a  peculiar  odor  and  a  power  of  resisting  moisture  far 
beyond  any  other  dressing.  Its  use  seems  to  have  arisen  from 
observing  that  the  thin  paper-like  leaves  of  birch-bai*k  re- 
mained after  the  coarser  part  of  the  bark  and  the  timber  of 
fallen  trees  had  rotted.  The  oil  appears  to  owe  this  quality 
to  a  resin,  which,  by  this  mode  of  distilling  per  descensum,  is 
allowed  to  escape  in  a  great  measure  from  the  action  of  the 
fire  and  drop  into  the  lower  pot. 

Other  barks  —  as  those  of  the  oak,  willow,  poplar,  alder,  as 
also  poplar-buds,  rue,  and  savine — have  been  tried,  but  the 
produce  from  them  was  only  a  stinking  oil.  Cork  yielded  an 
oil  approaching,  in  some  degree,  that  of  birch-bark. 

The  genuine  Russian  birch-oil  has  been  imported  into  this 
country,  and  has  given  very  good  results  in  the  dressing  of 
American  leather. 

Birdlime. —  This  preparation  is  used  extensively  by  pro- 
fessional birdcatchers,  and  affords  a  very  simple  and  effectual 
method  of  capturing  small  birds  without  injuring  them.  Twigs 
or  small  rods  are  coated  with  birdlime,  and  placed  either  near 
some  food  or  over  a  cage  contain- ng  another  bird.  lu  either 
case  the  wild  bird  is  sure  to  hop  on  to  the  limed  twig,  and  will 
be  held  until  the  birdeatcher  secures  him. 

Good  birdlime  is  greenish  colored ;  very  gluey,  stringy,  and 
tenacious;  when  air-dried  it  is  brittle  and  pulverizable,  but 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  195 

capable  of  gradually  assuming  its  previous  viscosity  when 
moistened. 

To  prepare  it  the  middle  bark  of  the  holly  (gathered  in  June 
or  July)  is  boiled  from  six  to  eight  hours  in  water,  or  until  it 
becomes  quite  soft  and  tender.  The  water  is  then  drained  off, 
and  it  is  placed  in  a  heap  in  a  pit  under  ground  (commonly  on 
layers  of  fern)  and  covered  with  stones.  Here  it  is  left  to 
ferment  for  two  or  three  weeks,  and  watered,  if  necessary, 
until  it  assumes  a  mucilaginous  state.  It  is  next  pounded  in 
a  mortar  until  reduced  to  a  uniform  mass,  which  is  then  well 
kneaded  with  the  hands  in  running  water  until  all  the  refuse 
matter  is  worked  out.  It  is,  lastly,  placed  in  an  earthen 
vessel  and  covered  with  a  little  water,  in  which  state  it  may 
be  preserved  from  season  to  season.  In  about  a  week  it  is  fit 
for  use. 

Brunswick  Black. —  This  is  a  black  varnish  which  is  a 
favorite  with  microscopists  and  amateurs.  Being  cheap  it  is 
also  used  to  blacken  ironwork,  grates,  etc.  The  formula  for 
the  best  article  is  as  follows: — 

In  an  iron  pot,  over  a  slow  fire,  boil  45  lbs.  of  real  asphaltum 
(not  that  made  from  gas-tar)  for  six  hours;  and  during  the 
same  time  boil  in  another  iron  pot  6  gallons  of  oil  which  has 
been  previously  boiled.  During  the  boiling  of  the  6  gallons 
introduce  6  lbs.  of  litharge  gradually,  and  boil  until  it  feels 
stringy  between  the  fingers;  then  ladle  or  pour  it  into  the  pot 
containing  the  boiling  asphaltum.  Let  the  mixture  boil  until 
upon  trial  it  will  roll  into  hard  pills;  then  let  it  cool,  and  mix 
it  with  25  gallons  of  turpentine,  or  until  it  is  of  a  proper  con- 
sistence. 

Bladders. —  To  the  amateur  chemist  bladders  often  form  an 
efficient  substitute  for  a  much  more  expensive  apparatus. 
They  form  the  cheapest  and  most  convenient  gasholders  that 
can  be  obtained;  and  we  have  often  melted  platinum,  burned 
small  pieces  of  iron,  and  even  produced  a  good  lime-light  by 
means  of  two  bladders  and  some  very  simple  home-made 
apparatus.     Strips  of  bladder,  after  being  moistened,  adhere 


196  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

firmly  to  glass  and  metal  in  drying,  and  often  form  the  best 
joints  and  lutes  in  putting  pieces  of  apparatus  together.  And 
in  certain  physical  experiments  on  liquids,  pieces  of  bladder 
are  as  convenient  an  article  as  can  be  used. 

Bladders  are  prepared  by  being  first  freed  from  all  fat  and 
flesh.  This  is  best  done  by  blowing  them  up  and  removing 
all  superfluous  matter  with  a  sharp  knife,  the  utmost  care 
being  taken  to  avoid  cutting  the  bladder  itself,  since  the  least 
puncture  renders  the  bladder  worthless.  It  is  always  well  to 
expand  the  bladder  a  little  first,  as  if  we  begin  to  cut  while 
the  bladder  is  thick  and  unexpanded  the  danger  of  cutting  the 
bladder  itself  is  greatly  increased.  The  bladder  should  then 
be  soaked  in  a  weak  solution  of  common  washing  soda  and 
well  washed,  after  which  it  is  blown  up  as  tightly  as  possible. 
and  the  neck  firmly  tied.  It  is  now  to  be  rolled  and  worked 
with  the  hands  on  a  smooth  board  or  table,  and  as  fast  as  it 
gets  larger  so  that  the  air  does  not  keep  it  tight,  it  must  be 
blown  up  again.  The  use  of  a  bladder-tube  and  stop-cock 
greatly  facilitates  this  operation,  as  the  bladder  can  then  be 
frequently  filled  without  the  trouble  of  tying  and  untying  the 
neck.  The  blowing  up  of  a  large  bladder  is  a  somewhat 
tedious  operation,  but  it  is  astonishing  to  see  the  extent  to 
which  it  may  be  increased  in  size.  After  being  blown  as  large 
as  possible,  the  bladder  should  be  filled  with  water  and  emptied 
two  or  three  times,  so  as  to  wash  out  the  inside.  This  tends 
greatly  to  prevent  putrefaction.  After  being  thoroughly  washed 
the  bladder  should  be  soaked  in  a  weak  solution  of  chloride 
of  lime,  or,  better  still,  Javelle  water.  It  should  then  be  thor- 
oughly emptied,  blown  up  tight,  and  tied.  If  now  well  dried, 
it  will  keep  in  good  condition  for  any  length  of  time.  The 
great  difficulty  with  bladders  when  used  for  such  purposes  is 
that  they  can  not  be  used  in  a  dry  state,  and  they  soon  become 
putrid  if  exposed  to  alternate  wetting  and  drying.  This  diffi- 
culty may  be  avoided  in  a  great  measure  by  soaking  the  blad- 
ders in  a  solution  of  salicylic  acid  in  glycerine.  This  not  only 
preserves  them  but  keeps  them  soft  and  pliable,  so  that  they 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  197 

may  be  used  quite  readily  for  experiments  on  gases.  By  care- 
ful selection  and  thorough  work  in  preparing  and  expanding 
the  membrane  a  good-sized  ox-bladder  may  be  converted  into 
a  very  serviceable  gasholder. 

Cadmium. —  This  metal  would  be  of  great  use  in  the  arts  if 
it  were  not  so  rare.  In  many  of  its  properties  it  stands  be- 
tween zinc  and  tin.  The  color  and  metallic  luster  of  cadmium 
are  similar  to  those  of  tin:  it  is  ductile  and  malleable,  but 
more  readily  acted  upon  by  atmospheric  oxygen  and  moisture 
than  tin. 

But  the  prominent  feature  of  cadmium  is  its  low  fusing 
point,  and  the  fact  that  it  forms  with  lead,  tin,  and  bismuth, 
alloys  which  have  a  lower  melting  point  than  any  other  metal 
except  mercury.  (See  Fusible  Metals.)  It  is  said  that  a  beau- 
tiful white  metal,  very  hard,  and  capable  of  taking  a  brilliant 
polish,  is  obtained  by  melting  together  about  seventy  parts  of 
copper,  twenty  of  nickel,  five  and  a  half  of  zinc,  and  four  and 
a  half  of  cadmium.  It  is,  therefore,  a  kind  of  German  silver, 
in  which  part  of  the  zinc  is  replaced  by  cadmium.  This  alloy 
has  been  recently  made  in  Paris  for  the  manufacture  of  spoons 
and  forks,  which  resemble  articles  of  silver. 

The  great  facility  with  which  cadmium  volatilizes  has  been 
the  serious  drawback  to  the  formation  of  its  alloys  and  their 
study. 

Cadmium  also  furnishes  a  beautiful  yellow  paint  —  cadmium 
yellow, —  M'hich  is  a  sulphuret  of  cadmium. 

Cameos. —  Success  in  the  cutting  of  cameos  will  depend 
largely  upon  the  artistic  abilities  of  the  carver.  In  skillful 
hands  the  results  are  exceedingly  delicate  and  beautiful.  The 
following  is  the  method  of  working: — 

Take  the  common  helmet  or  the  red  helmet  shell  (those 
shells  whose  inner  surface  is  pink  or  dark  colored  are  most 
suitable),  cut  them  into  squares  with  a  lapidary's  mill,  round 
off  the  corners,  and  shape  them  into  an  oval  on  a  wet  grind- 
stone. Fix  tlie  enamel  side  on  a  short  stick  with  jeweler's 
cement,  grind  off  the  brittle  surface,  sketch  the  subject  with 


198  THE  WOEKSHOP  COMPANION. 

a  black-lead  pencil,  cut  the  subject  with  engraver's  tools, 
namely,  a  chisel-tool  to  clear  the  bare  places ;  a  lozenge-shape 
for  forming  the  subject,  and  a  scraper  made  of  a  three-angled 
file,  ground  off  taper  to  the  point,  for  cleaning  the  enamel  sur- 
face round  the  subject,  and  also  for  forming  the  lineaments 
and  other  delicate  parts.  The  color  on  the  cheeks  and  hair  is 
produced  by  leaving  the  layer  of  colored  shell  on  those  places. 
The  stick  must  be  grasped  in  the  left  hand,  and  held  firmly 
against  a  steady  bench,  and  with  the  tool  resting  in  the  hollow 
of  the  right  hand,  dig  away  the  shell.  A  convenient  length 
for  the  tools  is  three  inches  and  a  half;  they  must  be  kept  in 
good  condition  to  work  with  accuracy.  The  cameos  are  pol- 
ished with  a  cedar  stick,  or  a  piece  of  cork  dipped  in  oil  of 
vitriol  and  putty-powder,  and  cleaned  with  soap  and  water. 
Mother-of-pearl  is  carved  in  the  same  way. 

Casehardening. — There  are  few  subjects  which  have  afford- 
ed a  more  profitable  field  to  the  traveling  recipe-monger  than 
iron  and  steel,  especially  as  relates  to  welding  and  casehard- 
ening. The  latter  is  a  very  old  process,  but  one  which  still 
has  important  uses,  notwithstanding  the  great  improvements 
in  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel. 

Casehardening  is  simply  the  rapid  conversion  of  the  surface 
of  a  piece  of  iron  into  steel,  and  this  is  usually  followed  by 
sudden  hardening  in  cold  water,  which  makes  the  casehardened 
portion  as  hard  as  the  hardest  steel,  and  besides  gives  it  a 
beautifully  mottled  appearance.  The  special  advantage  pos- 
sessed by  an  article  which  has  been  casehardened  over  one 
made  entirely  of  steel  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  interior  or  core 
remains  soft  and  tough,  so  that  the  article  is  not  liable  to  be 
broken  by  a  fall  or  a  blow.  Owing  to  the  irregularity  of  the 
steelifying  process  the  surface  also  presents  a  mottled  appear- 
ance, which  confers  upon  it  a  beauty  that  can  not  be  obtained 
in  any  other  way. 

The  following  processes  have  been  tested  by  experience, 
and  may  be  fully  relied  upon: — 

1.  Where  it  is  desired  that  the  articles  should  be  hardened 


THE   WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  199 

to  a  considerable  depth:  Char  a  quantity  of  bones,  just  enough 
{and  no  more)  to  enable  you  to  powder  them  with  a  hammer. 
Lay  a  layer  of  this  bone-dust  over  the  bottom  of  an  iron  tray 
or  box,  which  may  be  easily  made  by  bending  heavy  sheet-iron 
into  form.  Lay  the  articles  to  be  hardened  on  the  bone-dust, 
taking  care  that  they  do  not  touch  each  other.  Cover  with 
bone-dust,  and  fill  up  the  tray  with  spent  dust,  charcoal,  or 
sand.  Expose  to  a  bright  cherry-red  heat  for  half  an  hour  or 
an  hour,  and  then  turn  the  entire  contents  of  the  tray  into  a 
vessel  of  cold  water.  We  have  seen  beautiful  results  obtained 
by  this  process  when  carried  out  in  a  common  kitchen-stove. 

Even  i-aw  bone-dust,  such  as  is  sold  for  farming  purposes, 
may  be  used  with  good  results. 

Bone-black  or  ivory-black  may  also  be  used;  and,  as  they 
may  be  purchased  ready  prepared,  we  may  avoid  the  disagree- 
able process  of  roasting  the  raw  material. 

2.  Moxon's  recipe  is  as  follows: — 

Cow's  horn  or  hoof  is  baked  or  thoroughly  dried  and  pul- 
verized. To  this  is  added  an  equal  quantity  of  bay  salt,  and 
the  whole  is  made  into  a  paste  with  stale  chamber-lye  or 
white-wine  vinegar.  The  iron  is  covered  with  this  mixture, 
and  bedded  in  it,  in  loam,  or  inclosed  in  an  iron  box.  In  this 
form  it  is  laid  on  the  hearth  of  the  forge  to  dry  and  harden ; 
then  it  is  put  into  the  fire,  and  blown  till  the  lump  has  a  blood- 
red  heat  (no  higher).  It  is  hardened  by  immersion  in  water 
or  oil,  the  latter  being  preferred  for  delicate  articles. 

3.  Take  a  quantity  of  old  boots,  burn  these  until  they  be- 
come charred,  beat  off  the  black  and  charred  portion  with  a 
hammer  until  sufficient  powdered  carbon  is  obtained.  Then 
place  this  powder  with  the  articles  to  be  operated  upon  into  a 
sheet-iron  box  or  a  piece  of  wrought-iron  gas-pipe  sufficiently 
large,  taking  care  that  the  articles  are  well  covered  and  in  the 
center  of  the  mass ;  lute  tlie  ends  of  the  pipe  or  the  top  of  the 
box  with  clay,  and  place  the  whole  into  a  fire  made  of  coke, 
keeping  them  there  for  an  hour  or  more,  taking  care  that  the 


200  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

heat  shall  be  equal  (between  dark-red  and  red);  now  plunge 
the  contents  into  water. 

Any  animal  matter  will  answer;  and,  on  the  large  scale, 
charcoal  might  be  prepared  from  almost  any  refuse  of  the 
kind;  and,  being  well  powdered,  might  be  made  an  article  of 
commerce.  "Charcoal  for  casehardening  "  could  hardly  fail 
to  find  a  good  market. 

It  would  seem  that  in  mechanical  processes,  as  in  medicines, 
there  are  those  who  believe  that  the  more  disgusting  an  article 
is  the  more  effective  it  is.  It  is  only  on  this  ground  that  such 
filthy  ingredients  as  stale  urine,  nightsoil,  etc.,  can  have  been 
recommended.  We  have  tried  these  abominable  recipes,  and 
they  are  not  as  efficient  as  the  more  cleanly  ones.  We  there- 
fore omit  them. 

4.  As  this  roasting  of  bones,  leather,  etc.,  gives  rise  to  most 
abominable  odors,  the  editor  of  this  work  some  years  ago  de- 
vised the  following  preparation,  which  was  found  to  give  very 
excellent  results: — 

Prepare  a  strong  solution  of  prussiate  of  potassa  ;  boil  in  it 
as  much  coarsely  powdered  wood-charcoal  as  can  be  mixed 
with  it.  Drain  off  the  superfluous  liquid,  spread  the  charcoal 
on  a  board,  and  dry  by  exposure  to  the  air.  When  dry,  roast 
it  at  a  temperature  just  below  that  of  ignition,  the  object 
being  to  drive  off  all  moisture,  but  not  to  discompose  the  prus- 
siate, which,  at  a  red  heat,  is  converted  into  cyanide  of  potas- 
sium and  some  other  compounds.  The  charcoal  thus  prepared, 
and  afterwards  reduced  to  a  moderately  fine  powder,  will  be 
found  to  answer  quiet  as  well  as  animal-charcoal;  and  no 
difficulty  will  be  found  in  casehardening  to  a  depth  which  will 
allow  of  a  good  deal  of  polishing  before  the  soft  metal  under- 
neath is  reached. 

In  using  the  materials  above  described,  the  articles  to  be 
casehardened  are  always  inclosed  in  an  iron  box  or  case  while 
exposed  to  the  fire.  Pieces  of  iron  tubing  make  capital  recep- 
tacles  to    hold    the    work,    the   ends  being  stopped  with  loose 


THE  WOEKSHOP  COMPANION.  201 

iron  plugs,  which  are  to  be  cemented  in  air-tight  with  a  mix- 
ture of  fire-clay  and  sand,  and  the  whole  securely  bound  with 
wire.  The  entire  outside  of  the  box  or  tube  should  then  be 
coated  with  loam  and  allowed  to  dry,  after  which  it  may  be 
exposed  to  a  fire  for  a  period  varying  from  half  an  hour  to 
three  hours,  according  to  the  size  of  the  box  and  the  design 
of  the  operator. 

In  packing  the  articles  in  the  box  see  that  the  entire  space 
is  packed  solidly  with  the  powdered  charcoal;  and,  above  all, 
see  that  none  of  the  pieces  touch  each  other.  The  air  must  be 
thoroughly  excluded,  or  mischief  will  ensue. 

The  articles  are  usually  hardened  by  allowing  them  to  drop 
directly  from  the  box  or  tube  into  a  tub  of  water,  in  which 
they  are  vigorously  stirred  until  cold.  For  some  peculiar  pur- 
poses the  articles  are  dropped  into  oil.  They  do  not  become 
so  hard,  but  they  are  tougher. 

When  mere  superficial  hardening  is  required,  heat  the  article 
to  be  hardened  to  a  bright  red ;  sprinkle  it  liberally  with  pow- 
dered prussiate  of  potash.  The  salt  will  fuse,  and  if  the  piece 
of  iron  is  small  and  gets  cooled,  heat  it  again  and  plunge  into 
cold  water. 

We  have  seen  recipes  in  which  various  salts  (sal  ammoniac, 
nitre,  and  even  bichromate  of  potassa!)  are  recommended  to 
be  mixed  with  the  prussiate  of  potash.  It  is  needless  to  say 
that  such  additions  do  harm  instead  of  good,  and  can  only 
serve  to  render  the  recipe  more  complicated  and  mysterious. 
The  fact  is,  however,  that  casehardeniug  is  one  of  those  opera- 
tions which  are  usually  surrounded  by  much  mystery  by  the 
less  intelligent  class  of  mechanics;  but  to  those  who  have 
given  the  subject  a  careful  practical  study  the  process  is  as 
well  understood  as  any  other  operation  connected  with  iron 
and  steel.  Even  where  we  would  least  expect  it,  this  nonsen- 
sical complication  creeps  out.  Thus,  in  a  "Techno-ehemical 
Receipt-book"  recently  issued  we  find  the  following  as  the 
only  recipe  given  in  this  department: — 


202  THE  WOEKSHOP  COMPANION. 

'^ New  Casehardening  Compound.—  This  compound  is  very 
efficacious  for  casehardeniug  iron.  It  consists  of  16  parts  of 
lampblack,  18  of  sal  soda,  4  of  muriate  of  soda,  and  1  of  black 
oxide  of  manganese." 

This  recipe  is  almost  worthless.  The  lampblack  is  the  only 
efficient  agent  present,  and  it  is  not  half  as  good  as  charred 
leather  or  bone-black. 

Should  the  articles  require  to  be  blue,  such  as  the  barrels 
or  chambers  of  pistols,  repolish  them  on  an  emery-wheel ;  put 
them  into  a  sand-bath  or  powdered  charcoal,  and  heat  until 
the  blue  color  is  attained,  taking  them  out  the  instant  that 
this  change  takes  place.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
articles  treated  in  this  way  are  comparatively  soft. 

Owing  to  the  extreme  hardness  of  their  surface,  articles  that 
have  been  casehardened  are  capable  of  taking  a  very  high 
polish.  The  ordinary  processes  of  polishing  and  buffing  are 
sufficient  to  produce  beautiful  results. 

Articles  which  have  been  casehardenea  may  be  annealed 
and  made  so  soift  as  to  be  readily  worked  with  files  and  turning 
tools,  and  they  may  be  again  hardened  so  that  those  parts 
from  which  the  steely  surface  has  not  been  removed  will  be  as 
durable  as  ever.  Of  this  principle  advantage  has  been  taken 
to  cause  the  casehardening  to  terminate  at  any  desired  point. 
The  article  is  left  with  a  band  or  projection  at  the  place  which 
is  desired  to  be  soft;  the  work  is  allowed  to  cool  without  being 
immei'sed  in  water;  the  band  or  projection  is  now  removed  by 
turning  or  filing,  and  the  work  when  hardened  in  the  open  fire 
is  only  affected  so  far  as  the  original  cemented  surface  remains. 
This  ingenious  method  was  introduced  by  Mr.  Roberts,  of  Man- 
chester, who  considers  the  success  of  the  casehardening  pro- 
cess to  depend  on  the  gentle  application  of  the  heat.  Mr. 
Roberts  thinks  that  by  proper  management,  so  as  not  to  over- 
heat the  work,  the  cementation  may  be  made  to  penetrate 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  four  or  five  hours.  "  In  the  general 
way,  the  conversion  of  the  iron  into  steel  by  casehardening  is 
quite  superficial,  and  does  not  exceed  the  one-sixteenth  of  an 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  203 

inch.  If  made  to  extend  to  one-quarter  or  three-eighths  of  an 
inch  in  depth,  to  say  the  least  it  would  be  generally  useless, 
as  the  object  is  to  obtain  durability  of  surface  with  strength 
of  interior,  and  this  would  disproportionately  encroach  on  the 
strong  iron  within.  The  steel  obtained  in  this  adventitious 
manner  is  not  equal  in  strength  to  that  converted  and  ham- 
mered in  the  usual  way;  and  if  sent  in  so  deeply,  the  provision 
for  wear  would  far  exceed  that  which  is  required."- Holtzappf el. 

By  combining  a  hard  steely  surface  with  a  soft  interior,  the 
article  is  enabled  to  resist  sharp  blows  as  well  as  wear.  If  left 
soft,  it  is  easily  worn  down  by  friction ;  if  hardened  through- 
out, it  will  break  like  glass  by  a  mere  fall. 

Casehardening  Powders. —  Several  powders  have  been  placed 
on  market  for  the  purpose  of  casehardening.  The  principles 
to  be  adopted  in  compounding  them  will  be  obvious  from  what 
we  have  just  written.   The  following  are  a  few  of  the  best: — 

1.  Prussiate  of  potash,  dried,  finely  powdered,  and  mixed 
with  any  simple  coloring-matter  to  disguise  its  appearance. 

2.  Prussiate  of  potash,  3  parts ;  sal  ammoniac,  1  part.  Pow- 
der finely,  and  mix  thoroughly.  A  little  very  finely  powdered 
animal-charcoal  is  sometimes  added. 

3.  Sal  ammoniac  and  bone-dust,  of  each  2  parts ;  prussiate 
of  potash,  1  part.    Grind  to  fine  powder,  and  mix  thoroughly. 

4.  The  powder  suggested  by  the  author  of  this  work,  namely, 
animal  charcoal,  soaked  in  a  solution  of  prussiate  of  potash 
and  finely  powdered,  we  believe  to  be  the  most  convenient 
and  efficient.  It  is  cheap,  easily  made,  and,  if  put  up  in 
packets  of  different  sizes,  would  find  a  ready  though  limited 
sale. 

Castings  and  Patterns. —  There  are  few  problems  more 
interesting  to  the  pattern-maker  than  the  determination  of  the 
weight  of  the  eastings  which  his  patterns  will  produce.  Some 
years  ago  the  author  investigated  this  subject  very  carefully, 
both  theoretically  and  experimentally,  and  published  the  re- 
sults in  the  first  volume  of  The  Manufacturer  and  Builder,  of 
which  he  was  editor. 


-204  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

The  relative  weight  of  patterns  and  castings  can,  of  course, 
always  be  determined  most  accurately  by  measuring  the  pat- 
tern and  multiplying  the  number  of  cubic  inches  which  it  con- 
tains by  the  weight  of  a  cubic  inch  of  the  metal  of  which  the 
casting  is  to  be  made.  The  weight  of  a  cubic  inch  of  the 
various  metals  in  common  use  may  be  found  in  any  table  of 
specific  gravities.  This  plan  should  always  be  adopted  in  the 
case  of  very  large  castings,  because  it  eliminates  several  im- 
portant sources  of  error ;  and  when  proper  allowance  is  made 
for  shrinkage  it  gives  results  which  are  very  near  the  truth. 
But  many  patterns,  especially  those  of  small  size,  are  so 
irregular  in  shape  that  accurate  measurement  is  tedious  if  not 
difficult.  In  such  cases  a  tolerable  approximation  may  be 
obtained  by  weighing  the  pattern,  and  comparing  this  weight 
with  the  weight  of  the  same  bulk  of  the  material  of  which  the 
casting  is  to  be  made.  If  the  specific  gravity  of  all  samples 
of  the  same  kind  of  wood  were  alike,  and  if  the  casting  were 
always  the  same  size  as  the  pattern  and  of  uniform  specific 
gravity,  this  method  would  be  perfectly  accurate.  But  even 
with  every  drawback  it  gives  tolerable  approximations. 

In  the  following  table  we  give  a  series  of  multipliers  which 
express  the  relative  weight  of  patterns  of  different  materials 
when  cast  in  different  metals.  To  find  how  much  a  casting 
from  a  given  pattern  will  weigh  proceed  as  follows : — 

Weigh  the  pattern.  Then  in  the  first  column  find  the  mate- 
rial of  which  the  pattern  is  made,  and  opposite  this  and  under 
the  material  of  which  the  casting  is  to  be  made  will  be  found 
a  number  which  when  multiplied  by  the  weight  of  the  pattern 
will  give  the  weight  of  the  easting. 

Example :  A  pattern  made  of  St.  Domingo  mahogany  weighs 
8  lbs.  6  oz.     How  much  will  a  casting  of  iron  weigh? 

Weight  of  pattern, 8  lbs.  6  oz. 

Multiplier  for  cast-iron  set  opposite  }  ,« 

St.  Domingo  mahogany,  ^    .     .     .    . 


Weight  o£  casting, 83  lbs.  12  oz. 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 


205 


TABLE  OP  MULTIPLIERS  FOR 

FINDING  THE  WEIGHT  OF  CASTINGS 

FROM 

PATTERNS. 

Material  of  PatteriL 

Specific 

Cast 

Gun 

Yellow 

Gravity. 

Iron. 

Metal 

Brass. 

Zinc. 

Copper. 

Mahogany,     ,     .     . 

•854 

8 

10 

9-8 

8 

10^2 

St.  Domingo  do. 

•700 

10 

12 

11-5 

9-5 

12-2 

Maple, 

•700 

10 

12-4 

12 

9^8 

12-5 

Beech, 

•624 

11 

13^8 

13  4 

11 

14 

Cedar, 

•596 

11-5 

14^5 

14  • 

11-4 

14^7 

Yellow  Pine, .     .     . 

•541 

13 

16 

15-5 

12-6 

16^2 

White  Pine,  .     .     . 

•473 

14^2 

17-8 

17 

14^5 

18 

The  causes  of  error  are :  shrinkage  in  the  castings ;  weight 
of  nails  and  screws  in  the  pattern ;  variation  in  specific  grav- 
ity of  material  of  which  pattern  is  made ;  variation  of  specific 
gravity  of  metal  of  which  casting  is  made.  Shrinkage  is  too 
large  an  element  to  be  left  out  of  consideration,  and  we  have 
diminished  our  multipliers  by  a  proper  proportion  to  allow 
for  it.  In  the  construction  of  patterns  an  allowance  is  usually 
made  for  this  contraction,  either  by  calculation  or  by  the  use 
of  a  shrinkage  rule  as  it  is  called, —  that  is,  a  rule  on  which 
12i  inches  is  called  a  foot,  and  divided  accordingly.  But  in 
making  allowance  for  shrinkage  in  casting,  pattern-makers 
understand  that  different  shapes  will  shrink  differently.  The 
standard  table  of  allowance  for  shrinkage  in  use  in  the  best 
shops  of  the  country  is  as  follows: — 


Green  Sand 

Castings,   .    .     .    ^ 

Dry 

(( 

.     .    .     .     tV 

Brass  Castings, 

....    A 

Copper      " 

....   A 

Bismuth    " 

.   .   .   .   ^ 

Tin            " 

.   .    .    .    i 

Zinc          " 

.      .      .      .      T^ 

Lead 

....   A 

When  cores  are  to  be  used  a  suitable  allowance  must  be 
made  for  them,  but  this  is  in  general  most  easily  and  accu- 


206  THE  WORK'iHOP  COMPANION. 

rately  done  by  measuring  the  cubic  contents  of  the  hole  left 
by  the  core  and  calculating  the  proper  weight  to  be  deducted. 

A  singular  oversight  occurs  in  one  of  our  architects'  "Pocket- 
books"  in  the  treatment  of  this  problem.  The  reader  is  directed 
to  use  a  series  of  multipliers  which  are  arranged  for  the  metal 
of  which  the  casting  is  to  be  made,  utterly  irrespective  of  the 
material  of  which  the  pattern  is  made ! 

Chamois. —  The  chamois  of  commerce  is  a  variety  of  soft 
pliable  leather  obtained  by  tanning  the  skin  of  the  animal  of 
the  same  name  belonging  to  the  antelope  species.  The  leather 
is  used  extensively  for  burnishing  metals,  jewelry,  glass, 
precious  stones,  silverware,  fine  woods,  etc.,  and  also  in  some 
cases  for  linings,  and  as  a  filling  in  or  pack  for  surgical  instru- 
ments. A  great  deal  of  the  leather  sold  in  the  shops  is  nothing 
but  finely  tanned  sheepskin ;  but  this  is  not  nearly  so  soft  or 
strong  as  the  genuine  article,  although  it  is  held  at  the  extreme 
prices  asked  for  the  imported  and  real  chamois-leather. 

The  animal  known  as  the  chamois  chiefly  inhabits  the  Alps 
and  the  Pyrenees  Mountains  in  Europe,  being  found  in  flocks 
of  from  half  a  dozen  up  to  a  hundred  in  number.  It  is  of  an 
exceedingly  wild  nature,  and  has  never  been  domesticated. 

Chamois  may  be  cleaned  in  a  weak  solution  of  soda  in  warm 
water.  Rub  plenty  of  soft  soap  into  the  leather,  and  allow  it 
to  soak  for  two  hours.  Then  rub  it  well  until  it  is  quite  clean, 
and  rinse  it  well  in  a  weak  solution  composed  of  soda,  yellow 
soap,  and  warm  water.  If  rinsed  in  water  only,  it  becomes 
hard  when  dry,  and  unfit  for  use.  After  rinsing,  wring  it  well 
in  a  coarse  towel,  and  dry  quickly.  Then  pull  it  about  and 
brush  it  well,  and  it  will  become  softer  and  better  than  most 
new  leathers. 

The  chamois-skin  used  for  wiping  delicate  articles  should  be 
carefully  protected  from  dust  and  any  hard  foreign  particles 
which  are  liable  to  scratch  the  highly  polished  surface  of  gold, 
silver,  or  glass. 

Court-plaster. —  This  is  a  very  convenient  application  for 
slight  wounds  or  cuts,  and  is  easily  made.     It  is  foxmd  of 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  207 

various  colors,  cLiefly  black  and  flesh-colored ;  and  this  depends 
altogether  upon  the  color  of  the  silk  used,  though  if  only  white 
silk  were  at  hand  it  would  be  easy  to  color  it  slightly  with 
a  little  alkanet,  or  any  other  vegetable  coloring-matter.  The 
following  formula  gives  good  results: — 

Soak  isinglass  in  a  little  warm  water  for  24  hours;  then 
evaporate  nearly  all  the  water  by  gentle  heat;  dissolve  the 
residue  in  a  little  proof  spirits  of  wine  (alcohol  of  85  per  cent), 
and  strain  the  whole  through  a  piece  of  open  linen.  The 
strained  mass  should  be  a  stiff  jelly  when  cool.  Now  stretch 
a  piece  of  silk  or  sarsanet  on  a  wooden  frame,  and  fix  it  tight 
with  tacks  or  packthread.  Melt  the  jelly,  and  apply  it  to  the 
silk  thinly  and  evenly  with  a  badger-hair  or  any  very  fine 
brush.  A  second  coating  must  be  applied  when  the  first  has 
dried,  and  in  some  cases  even  a  third  is  given.  "When  thor- 
oughly dry,  apply  over  the  whole  surface  *;wo  or  three  coatings 
of  balsam  of  Peru. 

Plaster  thus  made  is  said  to  be  very  pliable,  and  never 
breaks.  The  quality  of  court-plaster  depends  upon  the  quality 
of  the  silk  used,  and  also  upon  the  care  taken  to  exclude  all 
irritating  and  poisonous  matter.  Many  of  the  dyed  silks  are 
absolutely  poisonous ;  and  if  the  isinglass  is  kept  too  long  in 
water,  so  as  to  become  tainted,  it  may  cause  serious  injury. 

Crucible. —  This  important  instrument  is  used  alike  by  the 
scientific  metallurgist,  the  practical  founder,  and  the  amateur. 
The  shape  of  the  crucible  and  the  material  of  which  it  is  made 
vary  very  much,  the  selection  of  a  suitable  article  depending 
upon  the  nature  of  the  substance  to  be  heated,  and  particularly 
of  the  flux  used.  Black-lead  crucibles  are  largely  used  for 
melting  metals,  common  and  precious.  Good  crucibles  of  this 
material  withstand  sudden  changes  of  temperature,  and  may 
be  used  over  and  over  again,  and  the  smoothness  of  their  sur- 
face obviates  one  great  source  of  loss,  as  the  particles  of  melted 
metal  do  not  adhere  to  the  sides. 

The  metals  employed  for  making  crucibles  are  platinum, 
gold,  silver,  and  iron.     Platinum  resists  intense  heat,  but  is 


208  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

easily  acted  upon  by  caustic  alkalies  and  by  the  fusible  metals, 
or  any  compound  from  which  they  may  be  reduced.  Gold  is 
too  expensive  for  crucibles,  except  in  important  and  delicate 
experiments.  SilVbi*  crucibles  and  dishes  are  used  for  fusing 
caustic  alkalies.  Crucibles  of  iron  are  used  for  roasting  many 
chemical  solutions;  and  they  are  also  used  for  melting  the 
more  fusible  metals,  such  as  lead,  zinc,  tin,  etc. 

It  will  rarely  pay  the  amateur  to  try  to  make  a  crucible,  as 
they  can  be  bought  so  easily  and  cheaply;  but  sometimes  it 
may  be  found  necessary  to  do  so.  The  material  will,  in  gen- 
eral, be  some  refractory  kind  of  clay, —  good  fire-clay  answer- 
ing well.  Where  no  vei-y  high  degree  of  heat  is  to  be  employed, 
the  clay  may  be  mixed  with  sand;  but  if  the  crucible  is  to  be 
exposed  to  a  very  high  temperature  the  mixture  of  sand  and 
clay  will  soften,  if  it  does  not  actually  melt.  In  such  cases 
coarsely  powdered  fire-brick  ov  old  crucibles  should  be  sub- 
stituted for  sand. 

The  materials,  having  been  ground  and  kneaded,  are  gen- 
erally molded  by  hand  upon  a  wooden  block  of  the  shape  of 
the  cavity  of  the  crucible.  Another  method  of  shaping  a 
crucible  consists  in  ramming  the  ingredients  into  a  suitable 
mold,  formed  of  steel  or  gun-metal. 

A  writer  in  the  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Arts  has  devised  a 
very  neat  and  expeditious  method  of  forming  small  crucibles 
by  pouring  "slip,"  that  is,  clay  mixed  with  sufiicient  water  to 
give  it  the  consistence  of  cream,  into  porous  molds,  made  of 
plaster  of  Paris.  A  series  of  these  molds  are  placed  upon  a 
table  and  filled  with  the  semifluid  composition.  By  the  time 
the  whole  (say  50  or  60)  are  filled,  the  "slip"  may  be  poured 
out  of  the  one  first  filled,  leaving  only  a  very  small  quantity 
behind  to  give  the  requisite  thickness  to  the  bottom.  The 
second  and  third  may  then  be  treated  in  the  same  way,  until 
the  whole  number  has  been  attended  to.  In  each  mold  a 
perfect  crucible  is  formed  by  the  abstraction  of  the  water  of 
that  portion  of  the  "slip"  in  immediate  contact  with  the 
plaster;  and  the  crucible  is  either  thicker  or  thinner  in  pro- 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  209 

portion  to  the  time  this  absorbent  action  has  been  allowed  to 
go  on.  Seventy  or  eighty  crucibles  may  thus  be  easily  made 
in  less  than  fifteen  minutes.  The  molds  and  their  contents 
are  next  placed  in  a  stove  or  slow  oven.  In  a  short  time,  from 
the  contraction  of  the  clay  in  drying,  the  crucibles  may  be 
removed;  and  the  molds,  as  soon  as  they  have  become  dry, 
may  be  again  filled.     By  care  they  will  last  for  years. 

The  amateur  chemist  will  often  find  that  the  bowl  of  a 
tobacco-pipe  will  make  a  very  good  crucible.  The  hole  at  the 
bottom  should  be  well  plugged  with  a  little  of  the  ground 
tobacco-pipe  made  into  a  paste  with  pipeclay  and  water. 

Diamond.— Diamond-dust  may  be  bought  in  most  large 
cities  ready  prepared.  It  is  not  a  very  costly  article,  as  it  is 
made  of  waste  pieces  obtained  in  cutting  jewels,  and  a  little 
of  it  lasts  a  long  time. 

Diamond-mills,  as  they  are  called,  are  made  either  of  brass 
or  iron.  The  mill,  having  been  turned  to  proper  shape,  is  laid 
firmly  on  some  solid  substance,  and  the  face  that  is  to  be  im- 
pregnated with  diamond-dust  is  slightly  oiled.  The  dust  is 
then  sprinkled  thinly  over  it  and  tapped  lightly  with  a  smooth 
hammer  till  the  diamond-dust  is  thoroughly  driven  into  the 
brass.  The  brass  will  bur  around  it,  and  hold  it  securely  in 
place.  The  oil  is  used  to  prevent  the  dust  from  bounding  off 
while  undergoing  the  process  of  hammering. 

Files  and  broaches  may  be  made  in  the  same  way.  They 
will  cut  the  hardest  material.  Polishing  broaches  are  usually 
made  of  ivory,  and  used  with  diamond-dust  loose  instead  of 
being  driven  in.  Oil  the  broach  lightly,  dip  it  into  the  finest 
diamond-dust,  and  proceed  to  use  it  as  you  would  a  brass 
broach. 

Dubbing. —  This  term  is  applied  to  various  greasy  com- 
pounds employed  by  curriers  and  shoemakers  for  softening 
and  preserving  leather. 

1.  Cuttings  of  sheepskins  boiled  in  cod-oil.  Said  to  be  used 
by  curriers. 


210  THE  WORKSHOP  TOMPANION. 

2.  Black  resin,  2  oz.;  tallow,  1  lb.;  crude  cod-oil  or  train-oii, 
1  gallon.  Boil  until  the  tallow  and  resin  are  thoroughly  dis- 
solved and  mixed. 

3.  Any  good  fish-oil  or  tallow. 

The  leather  or  hides  to  be  greased  are  first  moistened;  and 
having  been  rubbed  with  the  greasy  matter  are  dried  in  heated 
rooms,  so  that  the  hides,  by  actually  combining  with  the  fatty 
materials,  become,  as  it  were,  tanned  and  tawed  at  the  same 
time.  In  the  case  of  hides,  therefore,  the  greasing  is  not 
simply  an  operation  of  dressing,  but  in  reality  a  second  tanniug 
(technically  tawing)  process. —  Wagner. 

Ebony. — Ebonizing. — Although  "ebony"  is  a  synonym  for 
blackness,  there  are  several  colors  of  this  wood  —  yellow,  red, 
and  green,  as  well  as  black.  The  black  variety,  however,  is 
always  meant  when  ebony  is  spoken  of. 

There  are  several  varieties,  depending  chiefly  upon  the  place 
of  growth.  That  from  Africa  is  the  best,  and  is  the  only  kind 
used  for  sextants.  Pianoforte-keys  ai'e  generally  made  of  the 
East  Indian  variety.  Ebony  is  often  used  for  inlaying,  in  con- 
trast with  ivory ;  and  it  is  also  a  favorite  material  for  cabinet- 
work, turnery,  flutes,  door-handles,  knife-handles,  etc.  It  may 
be  worked  like  any  other  hard  wood,  and  with  the  same 
tools. 

Other  hard  woods  are  often  stained  to  imitate  ebony;  and 
when  close-grained  and  well  dyed  it  is  sometimes  difiicnlt  to 
distinguish  them.  Many  samples  of  black  ebony  are  not  as 
black  as  is  desirable,  and  to  bring  them  to  the  required  color 
it  is  necessary  to  dye  them.  A  writer  in  The  English  Mechanic 
says  that  a  good  black  ink  is  as  effectual  as  any  stain  to  blacken 
the  sharps  of  a  piano.  It  is,  perhaps,  not  generally  known 
that,  though  made  of  ebony,  these  keys  always  require  staining, 
as  true  ebony  is  rather  brown  than  black,  and  full  of  a  yellow- 
ish grain.  Old  keys  are  probably  saturated  with  grease :  they 
should  therefore  be  treated  with  potash  first. 

But  while  the  real  ebony  has  an  indescribable  richness  which 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  imitate,  the  demand  for  black  wood 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  211 

so  far  exceeds  the  supply  that  recourse  is  extensively  had  to 
imitation.  There  are  two  methods  of  so-called  ebonizing  in 
use:  one  is  a  mere  black  varnish,  the  other  is  a  veritable  dye. 
The  varnish  never  proves  satisfactory,  as  it  generally  has  a 
slimy  appearance,  and  does  not  show  the  rich  dead-black  grain 
of  the  wood,  which  is  the  thing  to  be  admired.  Moreover, 
whenever  the  article  gets  scratched  or  cut,  the  color  of  the 
original  wood  shows  through  and  shows  the  sham  at  once. 

The  old  stain  for  ebonizing  was  simply  a  black  iron  dye 
made  by  first  soaking  the  wood  in  a  solution  of  logwood  and 
galls,  and  then  applying  a  solution  of  acetate  of  iron.  A  much 
finer  effect  is,  however,  produced  by  the  use  of  nigrosine,— one 
of  the  aniline  dyes.  It  is  to  be  purchased  ready  made ;  and 
the  solution  is  found  in  market,  and  known  as  "ebonizing 
liquid." 

Eelskin.—  The  skin  of  the  eel,  when  properly  prepared,  is 
not  excelled  for  toughness,  pliability,  and  durability,  by  any 
other  material,  except  perhaps  the  dried  and  well-worked 
pizzle  of  the  bull,  which  in  olden  times  was  largely  used  for 
connecting  the  two  parts  of  the  threshing-flail.  The  eelskin 
should  be  tacked  to  a  board,  rubbed  well  with  fat  of  some 
kind,  dried,  and  then  worked  over  the  round  edge  of  a  board 
until  it  is  perfectly  supple.  It  may  then  be  cut  into  strips  of 
any  width.  As  a  lacing  for  belts,  or  as  a  material  for  making 
"catgut,"  it  is  unequalled.  A  mill-owner  who  has  used  eelskins 
largely  for  belt-lacing  says:  "Eelskins  make  the  best  possible 
strings  for  lacing  belts.  One  lace  will  outlast  any  belt,  and 
will  stand  wear  and  hard  usage  where  hooks  or  any  other 
fastenings  fail.  Our  mill  being  on  the  bank  of  the  river,  we 
keep  a  net  set  for  eels,  which,  when  wanted,  are  taken  out  in 
the  morning  and  skinned,  and  the  skins  are  stuck  on  a  smooth 
board.  When  dry  we  cut  them  in  two  strings, — making  the 
eelskin,  in  three  hours  from  the  time  the  fish  is  taken  from  the 
water,  travel  in  a  belt. 

Engravings. — To  transfer  to  wood. — Fine  engravings,  neatly 
transferred  tD  a  wooden  surface,  form  as  pretty  an  ornamenta- 


212  THE   WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

tion  as  can  be  wished,  and  may  often  be  utilized  in  the  finish- 
ing of  articles  made  of  wood.     The  process  is  as  follows: — 

First  varnish  the  wood  once  with  white  hard  varnish,  which 
facilitates  the  transferring;  then  cut  off  the  margins  of  the 
print,  which  should  be  on  unsized  paper,  that  is,  paper  that 
absorbs  like  blotting-paper;  and  wet  the  back  of  it  with  a 
sponge  and  water,  using  enough  water  to  saturate  the  paper, 
but  not  so  as  to  be  watery  on  the  printed  side.  Then,  with  a 
flat  camel-hair  brush,  give  it  a  coat  of  transfer  (alcoholic)  var- 
nish on  the  printed  side,  and  apply  it  immediately — varnished 
side  downwards — on  the  woodwork,  placing  a  sheet  of  paper 
on  it  and  pressing  it  down  with  the  hand  till  every  part  ad- 
heres. Then,  gently  rub  away  the  back  of  the  print  with  the 
fingers  till  nothing  but  a  thin  pulp  remains.  It  may  require 
being  wetted  again  before  all  that  will  come  (or  rather  ought 
to  come)  off  is  removed.  Great  care  is  required  in  this  opera- 
tion, that  the  design  or  printed  side  be  not  disturbed.  When 
this  is  done,  and  quite  dry,  give  the  work  a  coat  of  white  hai'd 
varnish,  and  it  will  appear  as  if  printed  on  the  wood. 

Fahlun  Brilliants. — Pieces  of  metal  cast  with  plane  facets 
in  the  form  of  crystals.  They  reflect  the  light  so  as  to  have  a 
dark  luster.  The  alloy  of  which  they  are  made  is  comp*^  *d  of 
tin  29,  lead  19.  This  alloy  when  melted  will  adhere  to  the 
polished  surfaces  with  which  it  is  in  contact  and  leave  them 
on  cooling.  The  thickness  of  the  deposit  is  regulated  at  will 
by  the  time  of  contact.  It  is  also  used  for  making  metallic 
mirrors. 

Fazie  Metal. —  An  alloy  said  to  be  composed  of  wrought 
iron,  cast-iron,  and  brass.  The  bronze  or  brass  and  the  cast 
and  wrought-iron  are  melted  separately ;  then  mixed,  and  con- 
tinually stirred  even  while  being  poured  out. 

Fluxes. — "Fluxes  are  very  frequently  required  in  cases  of 
chemical  action  amongst  metallic  compounds  at  high  tempera- 
tures, and  often  can  not  be  dispensed  with.  Their  use  is  to 
protect  the  substance  from  the  air;  to  dissolve  imy-urities 
wkich  would  otherwise  be  infusible;  and  to  convey  active 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  213 

agents,  as  charcoal  and  reducing  matter,  into  contact  with 
the  substance  operated  upon." — Faraday. 

In  the  large  way,  limestone  and  fluor  spar  are  used  as  fluxes. 
On  the  small  scale,  the  fluxes  chiefly  used  are  black  flux,  white 
flux,  crude  flux,  and  glass. 

1.  Black  Flux. —  Nitre,  1  part;  crude  tartar  or  cream  of  tar- 
tar, 2  parts ;  mix,  and  deflagrate,  by  small  quantities  at  a  time, 
in  a  crucible,  heated  to  duU  redness.  The  product  consists  of 
carbonate  of  potassa,  mixed  with  charcoal  in  a  finely  divided 
slate.  Used  for  smelting  metallic  ores.  It  exercises  a  reducing 
action,  as  well  as  promotes  the  fusion.  It  must  be  kept  in  a 
dry  corked  bottle. 

2.  White  Flux.—  Into  a  large  earthen  crucible,  heated  to  red- 
ness, throw  successive  portions  of  a  mixture  of  2  parts  of  nitre 
and  1  of  tartar.     Keep  it  as  the  last. 

3.  Crude  Flux  is  the  mixture  of  nitre  and  tartar  before  de- 
flagration. 

4.  Christison's  Flux  for  reducing  arsenic. — Mix  crystallized 
carbonate  of  soda  with  one  eighth  of  charcoal,  and  heat  grad- 
ually to  redness. 

5.  Fresenius's  Flux  for  reducing  sulphuret  of  arsenic— Dry 
carbonate  of  potash  3  parts,  cyanide  of  potassium  1  part 

6.  Cornish  Reducing  i^^^Mx.— Cream  of  tartar  10  parts,  nitre 
3^,  borax  3.     Triturate  well  together. 

7.  Morreau's  i^?«a'.— Pulverized  glass  (free  from  lead)  8  parts, 
calcined  borax  i  part,  charcoal  i  part.     Used  as  black  flux. 

8.  Taylor^s  Flux.—  Saturate  a  solution  of  tartaric  acid  with 
carbonate  of  soda,  evaporate  to  dryness,  and  calcine  in  a  cov- 
ered platinum  crucible. 

Furniture :  its  care  and  renovation.— Every  house  should 
have  a  few  joiner's  tools,  a  glue-pot,  a  paint-brush  or  two,  and 
a  box  of  nails,  screws,  and  brads.  With  these  few  tools  and 
other  supplies,  a  handy  boy  or  girl  or  housekeeper  should  be 
able  to  keep  all  the  furniture  in  a  moderate-sized  house  in  tol- 
erably good  order  if  the  following  hints,  suggestions,  and  in- 
structions are  followed. 


214  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

The  moment  a  piece  of  furniturti  shows  signs  of  fracture, 
shakiness,  or  abrasion,  it  should  be  removed  from  actual  use 
and  repaired  at  once,  or  left  unused  until  an  opportunity  arises 
to  repair  it.  If  it  is  a  case  of  loose  joints,  and  the  spindles  or 
tenons  slip  out  of  their  mortises  or  holes,  the  old  glue  should 
be  removed  from  both  hole  and  tenon,  if  possible,  and  fresh 
hot  glue  applied  to  the  work,  which  should  be  firmly  held  to- 
gether until  dry  and  hard,  either  by  strings,  clamps,  or  weights. 
When  the  work  is  put  together  and  firmly  secured,  it  should 
remain  where  placed  untouched  for  at  least  twenty-four  hours, 
so  as  to  get  dry  and  hard  before  being  used.  In  many  cases 
when  a  spindle  gets  loose  in  a  chair  or  other  piece  of  furniture, 
it  is  left  loose  until  the  spindle  wears  too  small  for  the  hole  or 
the  hole  wears  too  lai^e  for  the  spindle,  or  both  combine  to 
make  matters  worse.  When  this  is  the  case  there  is  no  use  in 
using  glue  to  make  the  spindle  stay  in  place,  as  glue  will  not 
hold  any  two  bodies  unless  the  bodies  fit  closely  together. 
The  best  way,  then,  to  repair  furniture  in  this  state  is  to  make 
a  judicious  use  of  screws,  always  making  sure  to  bore  holes 
for  the  screws,  having  the  hole  for  the  neck  or  straight  part 
of  the  screw  a  trifle  larger  than  the  diameter  of  the  screw,  «.ud 
the  hole  where  the  threaded  or  screio  part  of  the  screw  ent&w. 
a  trifle  smaller  than  the  diameter  of  the  threaded  portion. 
The  reason  of  this  is  quite  obvious.  Sometimes  both  glue  and 
screw  may  be  used  to  advantage.  Nails  should  never  be  used 
in  repairing  furniture,  unless  by  skilled  workmen.  Brads  may 
sometimes  be  used  with  advantage  in  repairing  broken  carv- 
ings or  in  assisting  glue  to  hold  broken  parts  together;  but 
even  then  should  be  used  sparingly,  and  should  never  be  driven 
without  first  having  holes  made  for  them  by  a  brace  and  a 
small  gimlet. 

When  knobs,  door-handles,  or  drawer-pulls  get  loose  or  fall 
off,  they  should  be  attended  to  at  once ;  and  if  the  screws  that 
hold  them  in  place  have  worked  loose  and  will  not  keep  their 
grip,  they  should  be  taken  out  and  new  screws  one  or  two 
sizes  larger  put  in  their  places.    This  will,  in  most  cases,  re- 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  215 

pair  the  defect.  Sometimes,  when  knobs  are  used,  the  nnt  on 
the  bolt  that  goes  through  the  drawer  front  becomes  so  wor-u 
that  it  will  not  hold.  When  this  is  the  case  the  nut  may  be 
hammered  on  its  edge  on  a  stone  or  a  flat  piece  of  iron  and 
made  so  that  it  will  hold  for  a  time;  or,  if  the  nut  has  worn 
smooth,  a  piece  of  hard  sole-leather,  cut  neat  and  round,  and 
a  small  hole  pierced  through  it,  may  be  made  to  do  service  for 
a  time;  but  these  are  only  expedients  at  best,  and  seldom 
prove  lasting  remedies.  The  better  way,  when  conditions  will 
admit,  is  to  cut  the  bolt  oft",  just  where  it  px'ojects  through  the 
nut,  and  then  rivet  it  solid  to  the  drawer.  Where  this  can  not 
be  done,  the  best  way  is  to  get  a  new  knob  or  substitute  some 
other  kind  of  a  pull.  When  drawers  get  rickety  they  should 
have  square  blocks  of  pine  glued  solid  in  their  comers.  This, 
when  well  done,  prevents  them  from  falling  in  pieces.  Some- 
times a  drawer  may  be  helped  very  much  by  having  the  bottom 
bradded  in  nicely.  The  brads  help  to  keep  the  whole  drawer 
together  and  rigid.  If  drawers  do  not  slide  easily  they  may  be 
helped  very  materially  by  rubbing  their  sides  and  lower  edges 
with  dry  soap.     Castile  is  the  best. 

The  moment  a  castor  gets  loose  it  should  5e  seen  to  at  once, 
or  torn  carpets,  broken  furniture,  or  ruined  castor,  will  be  the 
result.  If  the  castor  is  broken  or  irreparably  damaged,  it 
should  be  removed  and  another  one  put  in  place :  if  this  is  not 
done  all  the  other  castors  in  the  same  piece  of  furniture  should 
be  removed  until  the  whole  set  can  be  replaced. 

When  the  woodwork  on  fui-niture-sets  gets  bruised  it  may  be 
repaired  by  adopting  the  following:  Wet  the  part  bruised  with 
warm  water ;  double  a  piece  of  brown  paper  five  or  six  times, 
soak  the  paper  in  the  warm  water  and  lay  it  on  the  place; 
apply  on  that  a  flatiron  made  moderately  warm,  and  hold  there 
until  the  moisture  has  nearly  all  evaporated.  This  will  usually 
raise  the  indented  part ;  but  if  it  should  not,  simply  repeat  the 
process.  Where  the  bruises  are  small,  wet  the  part,  and  then 
hold  a  red-hot  iron  near  the  s^ot,  and  the  bruise  will  soon  dis- 
appear. 


216  THE   WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

When  the  braiding  or  gimp  on  the  upholstery  part  of  fur- 
niture shows  signs  of  wear  or  a  tendency  to  get  loose,  it  should 
be  firmly  fastened  to  the  wood  by  a  free  use  of  gimp-tacks. 
These  tacks  may  be  obtained  at  any  hardware  store,  and  a 
paper  or  two  should  be  kept  in  every  well-directed  household. 

The  following  recipes  will  be  found  very  useful  in  keeping 
furniture  in  good  order: — 

When  carved  work  has  to  be  polished  or  renovated,  take 
half  a  pint  of  linseed-oil,  half  a  pint  of  old  ale,  the  white  of  an 
egg,  one  oz.  spirits  of  wine,  one  oz.  spirits  of  salts.  Shake 
well  before  using.  A  little  to  be  applied  to  the  face  of  a  soft 
linen  pad,  and  lightly  rubbed  for  a  minute  or  two  over  the 
article  to  be  restored,  which  must  afterward  be  polished  off 
with  an  old  silk  handkerchief.  This  polish  will  keep  any 
length  of  time  if  well  corked.  The  polish  is  useful  for  delicate 
cabinet-work;  it  is  also  recommended  for  papier-mache  work. 

For  taking  stains  out  of  woodwork  of  various  kinds,  use  ore 
of  the  following  that  is  most  suitable : — 

Ink-stains  may  be  removed  from  a  mahogany  or  cherry  table 
by  putting  a  few  drops  of  spirits  of  salt  into  a  teaspoonful  of 
water,  and  touching  the  part  stained  with  a  featuer  dipped 
into  the  mixture.  Immediately  the  ink-stain  disappears,  the 
place  must  be  rubbed  with  a  rag  wet  with  cold  water,  or  there 
will  be  a  white  mark  which  will  not  easily  be  removed.  Ink- 
stains  on  silver  or  plated  articles  may  be  removed  immediately 
and  effectually  without  doing  any  injury  to  the  things,  by 
making  a  little  chloride  of  lime  into  a  paste  with  water  and 
rubbing  the  stains  until  they  disappear,  and  afterwards  wash- 
ing the  article  with  soap  and  water.  Ink-stains  may  be  re- 
moved fi'om  colored  table-covers  by  dissolving  a  teaspoonful 
of  oxalic  acid  in  a  teacupful  of  hot  water  and  rubbing  the 
stained  part  well  with  the  solution.  Ink-stains  may  be  taken 
out  of  anything  white  by  simply  putting  a  little  powdered 
salts  of  lemon  on  the  stain,  damping  it,  allowing  it  to  re- 
main about  five  minutes,  and  then  washing  it  out  with  soap 
and  water,  when  the  stain  will  disappear.    Ink-stains  may  be 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  217 

removed  from  boards  by  applying  some  strong  muriatic  acid 
or  spirits  of  salt  with  a  rag,  and  afterwards  well  washing  the 
place  with  water. 

For  removing  other  stains,  take  half  a  pint  of  soft  water, 
and  put  into  it  an  ounce  of  oxalic  acid  and  half  an  ounce  of 
butter  of  antimony.  Shake  it  well,  and  when  dissolved  it  will 
be  very  useful  in  extracting  stains  as  well  as  ink  from  wood, 
if  not  of  too  long  standing. 

To  remove  Paint  or  Stains  from  Woodworlc. —  Dissolve  potash 
in  water,  making  a  strong  solution.  With  this  wash  the  sur- 
face of  the  work,  allowing  it  to  soak  a  few  minutes.  If  the 
paint  can  not  then  be  scraped  off,  give  the  wood  another  ap- 
plication, and  repeat  until  the  paint  is  removed.  Afterward, 
wash  the  surface  with  clean  water  sufficiently  to  insure  the 
removal  of  all  the  potash. 

For  taking  off  varnish  from  cabinet-work,  use  a  strong  appli- 
cation of  ordinary  spirits  of  camphor.  This  will  remove  almost 
any  kind  of  polish  or  varnish.  Give  the  spirits  time  to  evap- 
orate before  repolishing,  or  it  will  injure  the  new  polish. 

The  solution  of  potash  mentioned  above  will  also  remove 
varnish,  and  must  be  carefully  washed  off  before  any  new 
varnish  is  applied. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  marble  tops  of  tables  or  other 
furniture  get  so  scratched  that  I'epolishing  becomes  necessary. 
The  following  is  the  process  used  by  the  mason,  and  will, 
therefore,  be  acceptable  in  a  work  like  the  present.  With  a 
piece  of  sandstone  with  a  very  fine  grit,  rub  the  slab  backward 
and  forward,  using  very  fine  sand  and  water,  till  the  marble 
appears  equally  rough,  and  not  in  scratches.  Next  use  a  finer 
stone  and  finer  sand,  till  its  surface  appears  equally  gone  over; 
then,  with  fine  emery-powder  and  a  piece  of  felt  or  old  hat 
wrapped  round  a  weight,  rub  till  all  the  marks  left  by  the 
former  process  are  worked  out,  and  it  appears  with  a  compar- 
ative gloss  on  its  surface.  Afterward  finish  the  polish  with 
putty-powder  and  fine  clean  rags.  As  soon  as  the  face  appears 
of  a  good  gloss,  do  not  put  any  more  powder  on  the  rags,  but 


218  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

rub  it  well,  and  in  a  short  time  it  will  appear  as  if  fresh  from 
the  mason's  hands. 

Another.— Make  a  thick  paste  with  rotten-stone  and  olive-oil, 
and  vigorously  rub  the  marble  with  it  on  a  cloth. 

To  polish  black  marble,  proceed  as  follows:  Wash  it  with 
warm  soap  and  water,  and  when  dry  rub  it  well  with  furniture 
paste  or  French  polish,  and  then  rub  it  with  an  old  silk  hand- 
kerchief.   After  one  or  two  trials  it  will  become  quite  bright. 

To  remove  stains  on  marble,  apply  spirits  of  salt  and  care- 
fully wash  off. 

To  clean  Marble.—  Mix  the  strongest  soap-lees  with  quick- 
lime to  the  consistency  of  milk;  let  it  lie  on  the  stone,  etc., 
for  twenty -four  hours ;  then  clean  it  off,  and  wash  with  soap 
and  water,  and  it  will  appear  as  new.  The  polish  will  require 
to  be  renewed  by  the  process  given  above. 

Another.—  Mix  with  a  quarter  pint  of  soap-lees  half  a  gill  of 
turpentine,  sufficient  pipeclay  and  bullock's  gall  to  make  the 
whole  into  a  rather  thick  paste.  Apply  it  to  the  marble  with  a 
soft  brush ;  and  after  a  day  or  two,  when  quite  dry,  rub  it  off 
with  a  soft  rag.  Apply  this  a  second  or  third  time  till  the 
marble  is  quite  clean. 

To  clean  Pictures.— Wash,  them  with  a  sponge  or  soft  leather 
pad  and  water,  and  dry  by  rubbing  with  a  silk  handkerchief. 
When  the  picture  is  very  dirty,  take  it  out  of  its  frame,  procure 
a  clean  towel,  and  making  it  quite  wet,  lay  it  on  the  face  of 
the  picture,  sprinkling  it  from  time  to  time  with  clear  soft 
water;  let  it  remain  wet  for  two  or  three  days;  take  the  cloth 
off  and  renew  it  with  a  fresh  one ;  after  wiping  the  picture 
with  a  clean  wet  sponge,  repeat  the  process  till  all  the  dirt  is 
soaked  out;  then  wash  it  well  with  a  soft  sponge,  and  let  it 
get  dry ;  rub  it  with  some  clear  nut  or  linseed-oil.  Spirits  of 
wine  and  turpentine  may  be  used  to  dissolve  the  hard  old  var- 
nish, but  they  will  attack  the  paint  as  well  as  the  varnish  if 
the  further  action  of  the  spirits  is  not  stopped  at  the  proper 
time  by  using  water  freely. 
There  are  conditions  where  the  above  simple  process  will 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  219 

not  accomplish  what  is  required;  where  a  thick  coating  of 
varnish  has  been  applied  to  the  picture,  and  it  has  been  hung 
in  a  smoky  room,  and  dust  and  dirt  have  been  allowed  to  gather 
and  remain;  then  it  is  that  no  high  lights  will  be  visible,  the 
sky  will  be  dirty,  no  distance  visible,  and  perhaps  the  figures 
in  the  foreground  very  indistinct.  Under  these  conditions  the 
varnish  must  be  either  removed  or  the  smoke  and  dust  must 
be  brought  out  of  the  varnish.  If  it  is  thought  desirable  to 
try  the  latter,  the  following  recipe  will  be  found  valuable  for 
the  purpose :  2  oz.  wood  naphtha,  1  oz.  spirits  of  salts,  \  pint  of 
linseed-oil. 

Mix  the  above  well  together,  and  before  using  shake  the 
bottle.  It  can  be  used  as  follows:  Get  some  soft  linen  rag, 
and  make  up  a  soft  pad,  which  place  on  the  mouth  of  the 
bottle  and  shake  up  some  of  the  mixture  into  the  pad ;  then 
commence  rubbing  the  picture  with  a  circular  motion,  and 
when  nearly  dry  again  give  the  pad  another  dressing  of  mix- 
ture, and  continue  this  mode  of  procedure  for  some  time,  when 
the  picture  will  gradually  come  out  in  all  its  detail. 

Paintings  sometimes  get  convex  and  concave  patches  on 
their  surface,  owing  to  pressure  on  one  side  or  the  other,  and 
these  inequalities  cause  a  great  deal  of  trouble  to  bring  out. 
The  most  successful  way  is  to  well  wet  both  sides  of  the  pic- 
ture on  the  spot,  and  keep  it  under  pressure  till  dry.  With 
small  pictures  the  quickest  way  would  be  to  take  them  off  the 
stretcher  and  lay  them  in  a  press,  with  a  light  pressure,  be- 
tween soft  sheets  of  paper. 

In  cleaning  mounted  engravings,  first  cut  a  stale  loaf  of  bread 
in  half  with  a  perfectly  clean  knife ;  pare  the  crust  away  from 
the  edges.  Now  place  the  engravings  on  a  perfectly  flat  table, 
and  rubbing  the  surface  with  the  fresh-cut  bread,  in  circular 
sweeps,  lightly  but  firmly  performed,  will  remove  all  super- 
ficial markings.  Now  soak  the  prints  for  a  short  time  in  a 
dilute  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid,  say  1  part  acid  to  100  of 
water,  and  then  remove  them  into  a  vessel  containing  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  clear  chloride  of  lime  water  to  cover  them. 


220  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

Leave  them  there  until  bleached  to  the  desired  point.  Now 
remove,  rinse  well  by  allowing  to  stand  an  hour  in  a  pan  in 
which  a  constant  stream  of  water  is  allowed  to  flow,  and  finally 
dry  off  by  spreading  on  clean  cloths.  Perhaps  the  sheets  may 
require  ironing  between  two  sheets  of  clean  paper. 

If  the  engraving  is  not  mounted,  put  it  on  a  smooth  board, 
and  cover  it  thinly  with  common  salt  finely  powdered.  Squeeze 
lemon-juice  upon  the  salt,  so  as  to  dissolve  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  it ;  elevate  one  end  of  the  board  so  that  it  may  form  an 
angle  of  about  45  or  50  degrees.  Pour  on  the  engraving  boiling 
water  from  a  teakettle  until  the  salt  and  lemon-juice  be  all 
washed  off.  The  engraving  will  then  be  perfectly  clean  and 
free  from  stains.  It  must  be  dried  on  the  board  or  some 
smooth  surface  gradually.  If  dried  by  the  fire  or  the  sun  it 
will  be  tinged  with  a  yellow  color. 

When  cane-bottomed  chairs  get  loose,  or  lose  their  elasticity, 
they  may  be  renovated  and  their  elasticity  restored  by  turning 
up  the  chair-bottoms,  and  with  hot  water  and  a  sponge  wash 
the  cane-work  well,  so  that  it  may  oe  well  soaked.  Should  it 
be  dirty  you  must  add  soap.  Let  it  dry  in  the  air,  and  you 
will  find  it  as  tight  and  firm  as  when  new,  provided  the  cane 
is  not  broken. 

For  cleaning  carpets,  heav-y  draperies,  or  hangings,  first  free 
the  fabric  from  dust  by  having  it  well  shaken  or  beaten;  then 
stretch  it,  either  on  the  floor  or  other  convenient  place ;  then 
mix  half  a  pint  of  bullock's  gall  with  two  gallons  of  soft  water; 
scrub  it  well  with  soap  and  the  gall-mixture;  let  it  remain  till 
quite  dry,  and  it  will  be  perfectly  cleansed  and  look  like  new, 
as  the  colors  will  be  restored  to  their  original  brightness.  The 
brush  used  must  not  be  too  hard,  but  rather  long  in  the  hair, 
or  it  will  rub  up  the  nap  and  damage  the  article. 

To  destroy  moths  or  other  insects  that  infest  carpets,  pour 
a  strong  solution  of  alum-water  on  the  floor  to  the  distance  of 
half  a  yard  around  the  edges  before  laying  the  carpets.  Then 
once  or  twice  during  the  season  sprinkle  dry  salt  over  the  car- 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  221 

pet  before  sweeping.     Insects  do  not  like  salt,  and  sufficient 
adheres  to  the  carpet  to  prevent  them  alighting  upon  it. 

Another  plan  is  to  take  a  wet  sheet  or  other  cloth,  lay  it 
upon  the  carpet,  and  then  rub  a  hot  flatiron  over  it,  so  as  to 
convert  the  water  into  steam,  which  permeates  the  carpet  be- 
neath, and  destroys  the  life  of  the  grub. 

There  are  many  recipes  given  for  destroying  the  small  in- 
sects that  infest  stuffed  upholstery  work,  but  none  seems  so 
effective  as  fumigation ;  but  as  this  is  a  process  that  generallj- 
results  in  damage  to  the  woodwork  of  the  articles  fumigated, 
or  in  destroying  the  colors  of  the  fabrics,  it  is  not  to  be  thought 
of  by  persons  who  are  not  experts. 

A  free  use  of  a  camphorated  solution  is,  perhaps,  the  safest 
remedy  in  these  cases,  though  sometimes  Persian  powder  may 
be  used  with  advantage ;  but  care  should  be  taken  in  its  use, 
particularly  when  there  are  children,  or  unpleasant  conse- 
quences may  ensue. 

To  polish  hardwood  floors  in  dining-rooms  or  lialls,  put  some 
spermaceti  into  a  saucepan  on  the  fire,  and  mix  it  with  enough 
turpentine  to  make  it  quite  fluid;  then  with  a  piece  of  flannel 
put  it  very  thinly  on  the  floor.  It  must  then  be  rubbed  with  a 
dry  flannel  and  brushed  in  the  same  way  that  oak  stairs  are 
polished.  This  part  of  the  process — rubbing  and  brushing — 
takes  a  long  time  to  do  thoroughly. 

Another. —  Dissolve  half  a  pound  of  potash  in  three  pints  of 
water,  in  a  saucepan  on  the  fire.  When  the  water  boils  throw 
in  one  pound  of  beeswax  cut  up  in  small  pieces ;  stir  it  well 
until  the  wax  is  quite  melted.  When  the  polish  is  cold,  if  it 
be  too  thick  add  more  water;  then  with  a  brush  paint  the 
boards  evenly  with  it;  and  when  it  has  dried  rub  them  witli  m 
flannel  tied  at  the  end  of  a  broom. 

A  paste  that  will  be  found  excellent  for  laying  cloth  or  leath^  r 
on  desks,  writing-tables,  or  other  similar  work,  may  be  made 
as  follows: — 

To  a  pint  of  the  best  wheaten  flour  add  resin,  very  finely 
powdered,  about  two  large  spoonfuls;  of  alum,  one  spoonful, 


222  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

in  powder;  mix  them  all  well  together,  put  them  into  a  pan, 
aud  add  by  degrees  soft  or  rain  water,  carefully  stirring  it  till 
it  is  of  the  consistence  of  thinnish  cream ;  put  it  into  a  sauce- 
pan over  a  clear  fire,  keeping  it  constantly  stirred  that  it  may 
not  get  lumpy.  When  it  is  of  a  stiff  consistence,  so  that  the 
spoon  will  stand  upright  in  it,  it  is  done  enough.  Be  careful 
to  stir  it  well  from  the  bottom,  for  it  will  burn  if  not  well 
attended  to.  Empty  it  out  into  a  pan  and  cover  it  over  till 
cold,  to  prevent  a  skin  forming  on  the  top,  which  would  make 
it  lumpy. 

This  paste  is  very  superior  for  the  purpose,  and  adhesive. 
To  use  it  for  cloth  or  baize,  spread  the  paste  evenly  and 
smoothly  on  the  top  of  the  table,  and  lay  the  cloth  on  it,  press- 
ing and  smoothing  it  with  a  flat  piece  of  wood.  Let  it  remain 
till  dry;  then  trim  the  edges  close  to  the  cross-banding.  If 
you  cut  it  close  at  first,  it  will,  in  drying,  shrink  and  look  bad 
where  it  meets  the  banding  all  round.  If  used  for  leather,  the 
leather  must  be  fii-st  previously  damped,  and  then  the  paste 
spread  over  it ;  then  lay  it  on  the  table,  and  rub  it  smooth  aud 
level  with  a  linen  cloth,  and  cut  the  edges  close  to  the  banding 
with  a  sharp  knife.  Some  lay  their  table-cover  with  glue  in- 
stead of  paste,  and  for  cloth  perhaps  it  is  the  best  method; 
but  for  leather  it  is  not  proper,  as  glue  is  apt  to  run  through. 
In  using  it  for  cloth,  great  care  must  be  taken  that  the  glue  be 
not  too  thin,  and  that  the  cloth  be  well  rubbed  down  with  a 
thick  piece  of  wood  made  hot  at  the  fire,  for  the  glue  soon 
chills.  By  this  method  the  edges  may  be  cut  off  close  to  the 
border  at  once. 

For  "Staining,"  "Ebonizing,"  "Polishing,"  "Painting,'' 
"Gluing,"  "Gilding,"  "Bronzing,"  "Varnishing,"  and  using 
"Cements,"  see  the  items  given  under  the  above  headings,  in 
the  former  part  of  this  work. 

Lutes. —  The  distinction  between  lutes  and  cements  is  not 
always  very  obvious.  As  a  general  rule,  however,  a  lute  is  a 
cement  used  for  connecting,  temporarily,  the  parts  of  a  piece 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  223 

of  apparatus  or  for  coating  and  protecting  apparatus  that  is 
to  be  exposed  to  intense  heat. 

Lutes  for  joining  apparatus  may  be  needed  both  for  low  and 
high  temperatures;  for  acid  or  corrosive  liquids  or  vapors,  or 
for  those  which  are  easily  resisted;  au.l  the  operator  must 
exercise  good  judgment  in  this  respect  if  he  would  secure 
success.  The  lutes  described  in  the  following  paragraphs 
afford  an  abundant  variety  for  most  purposes.  Those  who 
have  occasion  to  make  extensive  use  of  lutes  are  recommended 
to  read  carefully  the  chapter  on  this  subject  in  Faraday's 
"Chemical  Manipulations,"  a  work  which  may  be  old  but  can 
never  be  entirely  superseded.  For  the  joining  of  tubes  of  glass 
or  metal,  the  rubber  tubing,  which,  at  the  time  Faraday  wrote, 
was  almost  uuknown,  now  affords  a  cheap,  simple,  and  eft'ect- 
ive  means,— far  better  than  any  lute, —  where  the  tempeii!- 
tures  are  not  too  high.  When  the  apparatus  lias  to  be  exposed 
to  a  heat  at  which  rubber  will  soften  or  melt,  recourse  must 
be  had  to  one  of  the  old-fashioned  lutes.  The  following  lutes 
are  employed  for  making  joints  which  do  not  require  to  be 
exposed  to  a  high  temperature : — 

Glazier's  Putty.— This  makes  a  very  good  lute  for  many  pur- 
poses, and  is  frequently  used  for  covering  the  stoppers  or  corks 
of  bottles  containing  strong  acids.  But  owing  to  the  fact  that 
glazier's  putty  is  made  with  carbonate  of  lime  (whiting)  it  is 
not  well  adapted  to  this  purpose.  If  the  acids  come  in  contact 
with  the  putty  the  carbonate  is  decomposed,  and  the  resulting 
gas  forces  off  the  lute  and  renders  it  worthless. 

Fat  Lute.— This  is  similar  to  putty,  but  instead  of  whiting 
finely  powdered  clay  is  used.  The  lute  should  be  well  beaten 
and  mixed,  as  upon  this  depends  its  excellence.  The  clay  is 
not  acted  upon  by  any  of  the  common  acids,  however  strong, 
and  the  lute  is  therefore  well  adapted  to  closing  joints,  etc., 
when  these  liquids  or  their  vapors  are  in  use.  Before  applying 
this  lute  to  a  joint  the  glass  should  be  wiped  perfectly  dry, 
otherwise  the  lute  will  not  adhere;  and  if  the  joint  is  to  be 
made  very  hot,  the  lute  should  be  held  to  its  place  by  strips  of 


224  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

bladder  or  even  of  linen.  The  oil  used  is  the  best  drying 
linseed-oil,  and  the  clay  is  pipeclay. 

Strips  of  Bladder. —  A  very  excellent  means  of  joining  tubes 
is  to  wind  strips  of  bladder  round  the  ends  after  they  have 
been  placed  in  position.  The  bladder  should  be  soaked  in 
water  until  soft,  and  if  smeared  with  white  of  egg  it  will  be 
the  better.  For  all  vapors  except  corrosive  acids  this  makes 
an  excellent  joint. 

Plaster  of  Paris. — This  may  be  used  occasionally  for  making 
joints  tight  either  at  common  or  moderately  high  temperatures. 
For  the  best  methods  of  selecting,  preserving,  and  preparing 
it,  see  the  article  on  Plaster  of  Paris.  When  applied  as  a  lute 
it  may  be  made  perfectly  airtight  by  coating  it  with  parafifine 
oil  or  wax.  When  it  is  mixed  up  with  very  thin  glue  instead 
of  water  it  takes  a  longer  time  to  solidify,  but  ultimately 
makes  a  much  harder  and  stronger  cement.  When  prepared 
with  water  alone  it  may  be  raised  to  a  dull  red  heat  without 
injury,  but  if  mixed  with  organic  matter  (oil,  wax,  glue,  etc.) 
it  will  not  support  so  high  a  temperature  unchanged. 

Lime  Cement. —  This  is  made  of  caustic  lime  mixed  with 
white  of  egg,  glue,  blood,  milk,  or  similar  matters.  See  Parolic 
Cement. 

The  lime  should  be  freshly  burned,  slaked  with  just  enough 
water  to  make  it  fall  to  powder  and  still  be  quite  dry;  and 
then  it  may  be  kept  in  a  closely  stoppered  bottle.  When  white 
of  egg  is  used,  it  should  be  beaten  as  is  done  by  cooks  in  mak- 
ing cake,  etc.  It  may  then  be  diluted  with  an  equal  bulk  of 
water,  and  the  powdered  lime  added  until  the  whole,  when 
•well  mixed,  forms  a  thin  paste.  This  is  spread  on  strips  of 
cloth  and  wrapped  round  the  joint.  Faraday  tells  us  that  this 
lute  will  bear  a  heat  approaching  to  visible  ignition  without 
injury. 

Rtibher  Cement. —  Dissolve  1  part  of  india-rubber  in  2  parts 
of  linseed-oil,  by  heat,  and  work  into  a  stiff  paste  with  3  parts, 
or  as  much  as  sufficient,  of  white  clay. 


THE  WOEKSHOP  COMPANION.      225 

Water  Glass  Cement.— A  concentrated  solution  of  silicate  of 
soda,  made  into  a  paste  with  powdered  glass. 

Wax  Lute. —  Beeswax  melted  and  mixed  with  sufficient 
linseed-oil  to  render  it  pliable  at  a  blood-heat. 

Soft  Cement. —  This  is  made  of  beeswax  melted  with  its 
weight  of  turpentine,  and  colored  with  a  little  Venetian  red. 
When  cold  it  has  the  hardness  of  common  yellow  soap,  but  at 
a  blood-heat  it  is  soft  and  easily  molded.  Its  great  use  is  to 
make  tight  the  joints  of  apparatus  used  for  preparing  gases, 
etc.,  at  common  temperatures. 

Bottle  XMfe.— Ordinary  bottle-wax  is  used  for  closing  the 
pores  of  corks  and  ornamenting  their  tops;  but  where  it  is 
desirable  to  hermetically  seal  a  bottle  containing  matters 
which  are  to  be  kept  for  some  time,  tlie  following  preparation 
is  to  be  preferred : — 

Take  equal  parts  of  common  resin  and  beeswax  and  enough 
red  ochre  and  turpentine  to  bring  the  whole  to  a  proper  con- 
sistency. These  must  be  melted  over  a  fire  in  the  following 
manner ;  and  the  vessel  in  which  it  is  made  should  be  capable 
of  holding  three  times  the  quantity  required,  to  allow  ample 
room  for  boiling  up.  An  earthenware  pipkin  with  a  handle  is 
the  best  thing  for  the  purpose,  and  a  lid  must  be  made  of  tin 
to  fit  it.  The  luting  will  be  rendered  more  or  less  brittle,  or 
elastic,  as  the  red  oelire  prevails.  The  wax  is  first  melted, 
and  then  the  resin ;  the  oclire  is  then  added  in  small  quantities, 
and  stirred  quickly  with  a  spatula  each  time.  When  all  the 
ochre  has  been  added,  it  must  be  allowed  to  boil  six  or  eight 
minutes;  the  turpentine  is  then  added,  and  briskly  stirred 
with  the  spatula,  and  continued  boiling.  There  is  considerable 
risk  of  the  mixture  taking  fire.  Should  it  do  so,  the  lid  must 
immediately  be  put  on  the  vessel  to  extinguish  it. 

If  the  bottles  are  to  be  kept  a  very  long  time,  a  little  linseed- 
oil  added  to  this  mixture  will  prevent  it  becoming  brittle  by 
the  evaporation  of  the  turpentine. 

For  making  joints  that  are  to  remain  tight  at  high  temper- 
atures, we  have  found  nothing  better  than  good  fire-clay  well 


226  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

beaten  to  a  paste  with  water  and  mixed  with  fine  clean  sand. 
For  example,  in  making  oxygen  (which  is  now  freely  used  in 
the  arts),  we  use  a  retort  consisting  of  a  small  eastiron  pot, 
with  a  lid  rudely  fitted.  It  is  of  no  use  to  grind  the  lid  care- 
fully into  its  seat,  for  the  process  is  not  only  too  troublesome, 
but  the  joint  soon  becomes  imperfect  from  the  oxidation  of 
the  metal.  The  casting  is  left  rough,  the  groove  in  the  edge 
of  the  pot  is  filled  with  clay  and  sand  prepared  as  described, 
and  the  lid  is  forced  down  so  that  the  projection  is  forced  into 
the  lute.  Such  a  joint,  made  with  moderately  stiff  clay,  may 
be  placed  in  the  fire  at  once,  and  will  withstand  a  pressure  of 
many  pounds  to  the  square  inch.  A  retort  of  this  kind  is  the 
most  convenient  article  for  all  kinds  of  distillation  and  gas- 
making  at  high  temperatures,  as  it  is  easily  put  together, 
easily  taken  apart,  easily  changed,  and  easily  cleaned. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  coat  glass  and  metal  apparatus 
that  is  to  be  exposed  to  a  hot  fire.  This  prevents  the  burning 
of  the  one  and  the  melting  of  the  other. 

Coating  for  Glass  Vessels. —  1.  Dissolve  one  ounce  of  borax 
in  a  half  pint  of  water,  and  add  slaked  lime  to  form  a  thin 
paste.  Brush  this  over  the  retort,  and  let  it  dry  gradually. 
Then  apply  a  coating  of  slaked  lime  and  linseed-oil  beaten 
together.  Let  it  dry  a  day  or  two  before  use,  and  fill  up  any 
cracks  which  may  appear  with  lime  aud  linseed-oil. 

2.  A  lute  which  is  said  to  be  very  efficient  is  made  as  fol- 
lows: Take  fragments  of  porcelain,  pulverize  and  sift  them 
well,  and  add  an  equal  quantity  of  fine  clay,  previously  soft- 
ened with  as  much  of  a  saturated  solution  of  muriate  of  soda 
as  is  requisite  to  give  the  whole  a  pioper  consistence.  Apply  a 
thin  and  uniform  coat  of  this  composition  to  the  glass  vessels, 
and  allow  it  to  dry  slowly  before  tliey  are  put  on  the  fire. 

Clay  Lute.—  Good  fire-clay  is  mixed  with  a  little  sand  to 
prevent  it  splitting  off.  A  little  cut  tow,  or  horse-dung,  or 
asbestos,  is  usually  added  to  mcrease  its  coherence.  It  should 
be  beaten  to  a  stiff  paste,  and  rolled  out  before  application. 
The  glass  should  be  first  rubbed  over  with  a  little  of  the  lute 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  227 

mixed  with  water,  then  placed  in  the  center  of  the  paste, 
rolled  out  to  about  a  quarter  or  third  of  an  inch  in  thickness, 
and  the  edges  of  the  latter  raised  and  molded  to  the  glass, 
taking  care  to  press  ©ut  all  the  air, 

Mohr^s  Liite.—  'M.ix  equal  parts  of  brick-dust  and  litharge, 
and  beat  them  into  a  paste  with  linseed-oil.  Apply  this  with 
a  stiff  brush,  and  dust  it  ovei  with  coarse  sand.  Dry  it  in  a 
warm  place.  * 

Notwithstanding  Mohr's  high  reputation  we  have  not  much 
confidence  in  this  lute  if  exposed  to  heat.  It  is  no  doubt 
serviceable  at  common  temperatures. 

Lute  for  Iron  Retorts.  — Fire-Gl&y,  15  lbs.;  carbonate  of  soda, 
1  lb.;  water  sufficient  to  make  a  thick  paste.  Apply  to  the 
crack  when  at  a  good  working  heat,  and  cover  with  fine  coal- 
dust. 

Lute  for  Clmj  Retorts.— Five  parts  fire-clay,  2  parts  white 
sand,  1  part  of  borax  pressed  and  ground.  Mix  the  whole 
together  with  as  much  water  as  may  be  necessary  to  bring  it 
to  the  consistence  of  putty.  Roll  it  in  the  hands  to  a  proper 
length  and  apply  it  over  the  crack,  pressing  it  with  a  long 
spatula  into  the  crack. 

German  Paste.— This  well  known  food  for  insectivorous 
birds  is  prepared  as  follows:  Pea-meal,  2  lbs.;  sweet  almonds 
(blanched),  1  lb.;  butter  or  lard,  +  ib.;  moist  sugar,  5  oz.;  hay 
saffron,  i  dr.  Beat  to  a  smooth  paste,  adding  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  cold  water;  granulate  the  mass  by  passing  it 
through  a  colander,  and  expose  the  product  to  the  air  in  a 
warm  place,  until  quite  hard  and  dry.  The  addition  of  two  or 
three  eggs  improves  it.  It  will  keep  good  for  twelve  months 
iii  a  dry  place. 

Gumption,  for  Artists. —  This  is  employed  by  the  artist  as 
a  vehicle  to  use  with  some  of  his  colors.  It  is  composed  of 
either  poppy,  nut,  or  linseed  oil,  to  which  a  drying  quality  has 
been  given  by  soaking  in  it  for  some  days  the  acetate  of  lead, 
in  the  proportion  oi  one  ounce  to  the  pint  of  oil.  This  being 
poured  off  clear,  is  mixed,  according  to  the  judgment  of  the 


228  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

artist,  with  strong  mastic  varnish.  It  has  much  body,  works 
easily,  and  dries  rapidly.  It  may  be  diluted  in  use  with  spirits 
of  turpentine. 

Gut,  Silkworm. —  The  raising  of  silkworms  has  recently 
become,  in  this  country,  a  favorite  pursuit  with  amateurs. 
The  following  method  of  utilizing  these  interesting  insects 
and  of  producing  an  article  that  will  always  be  in  considerable 
demand  can  not  fail  to  be  of  value  to  many  of  our  readers. 

To  manufacture  fine  gut  for  angling  take  the  best  and 
largest  silkworms  you  can  procure,  just  when  they  are  about 
to  spin,  which  may  be  known  by  their  refusing  to  eat,  and 
having  a  fine  silk  thread  hanging  from  their  mouths.  The 
worms  must  first  be  thrown  into  strong  vinegar,  and  kept 
there  covered  close  for  twelve  hours,  if  the  summer  be  warm; 
or  fifteen  hours  in  cooler  weather.  When  taken  out  they  must 
be  pulled  asunder,  and  you  will  see  two  transparent  guts  of  a 
greenish  yellow  color,  as  thick  as  a  small  straw,  bent  double, 
the  rest  of  the  inside  resembling  boiled  spinach.  You  can 
make  no  mistake.  If  you  find  the  guts  soft,  or  break  upon 
stretching  them,  you  must  let  them  ho  longer  in  the  vinegar. 
When  fit  to  draw  out,  stretch  it  gently  with  both  hands  till  of 
a  proper  length,  or  nearly  so.  The  gut  drawn  out  must  be 
fastened  on  a  thin  piece  of  board  by  putting  each  end  in  a  slit 
made  at  the  ends  of  the  board.  It  is  now  to  be  placed  in  the 
sun  to  dry. 

It  would  seem  that  the  character  of  the  vinegar  has  a  great 
influence  upon  the  quality  of  the  product.  It  must  be  pure 
and  strong.  That  made  from  grape  wine  seems  to  succeed 
best,  but  further  experiment  is  needed  in  this  direction. 

Gutta-percha. —  This  substance  is  frequently  confounded 
by  the  ignorant  with  india-rubber,  from  which,  however,  it  is 
entirely  distinct.  It  is  obtained  by  evaporating  the  juice  of 
Isonandra  gutta,  a  tall  tree  which  grows  only  in  the  Malayan 
Archipelago.  A  tree,  which  probably  numbers  fifty  summers, 
is  cut  down,  stripped  of  its  bark,  and  the  juice  collected  in  a 
cocoanut-shell  or  plantain-leaf;  or  else  rings  are  cut  in  the 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  229 

bark,  about  a  foot  apart,  and  the  sap  collected  and  boiled 
down  Gutta-percha,  as  imported  from  Malacca,  contains 
several  impurities,  which  consist  of  soluble  salts,  together 
with  some  organic  matter,  such  as  fragments  of  the  bark,  etc. 
It  is  purified  by  rasping  with  cold,  and  washing  with  warm 
water.  Afterwards  it  is  heated  to  230  degrees  Fah.  to  expel 
the  water,  which  would  interfere  with  its  cohesive  power;  by 
being  heated,  it  is  also  reduced  to  a  single  mass.  Purified 
gutta-percha  has  a  density  of  0"979,  and  is  a  very  bad  con- 
ductor of  electricity,  for  which  reason  it  is  so  much  used  for 
insulating  supports  in  electrical  machines  and  coating  the 
wire  of  electric  cables.  Gutta-percha  is  not  acted  upon  either 
by  water,  hydrochloric  or  acetic  acids,  alkaline  solutions,  or 
alcohol.  It  is  soluble  in  chloroform,  benzol,  bisulphide  of 
carbon,  rectified  mineral  naphtha,  and  rectified  oil  of  tur- 
pentine. 

There  are  three  qualities  of  gutta-percha  imported.  The 
best,  native,  which  occurs  in  tough  flexible  pieces,  of  a  light 
brown  or  chocolate  color,  of  all  sizes  and  shapes.  Inferior 
native,  which  is  lighter  in  color,  and  more  easily  torn  in  pieces 
than  the  above.  The  boiled  sort,  which  comes  to  Europe  in 
oblong  pieces:  it  probably  consists  of  the  two  native  sorts, 
boiled  together  to  give  it  a  fine  appearance. 

The  solution  of  gutta-percha  has  been  found  very  useful  as 
an  artificial  cuticle  in  the  care  of  cuts,  burns,  and  extensive 
abrasions.  Mr.  Acton,  however,  after  making  various  exper- 
iments with  solutions  of  gun-cotton,  caoutchouc,  and  gutta- 
percha, arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  a  compound  solution  of 
caoutchouc  with  gutta-percha  possesses  the  requisite  qualities 
for  preserving  the  skin  against  the  action  of  contagious  poisons, 
and  also  as  a  covering  for  the  hands  duriag  post-mortem  ex- 
aminations. 

Gutta-percha  has  been  used  for  belting,  and  as  an  insulator 
for  covering  wires  for  electrical  purposes.  When  warmed  it  is 
perfectly  plastic,  and  may  be  readily  molded  into  any  form. 
Indeed,  it  may  be  kneaded  between  the  fingers  into  almost 


230  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

any  form ;  and  consequently  it  has  been  used  for  various  ex- 
temporized articles,  such  as  stoppers  for  bottles,  photographic 
baths,  voltaic  battery  cells,  and  an  infinite  variety  of  surgical 
appliances.  As  it  takes  an  impression  of  the  very  finest  and 
most  delicate  lines  and  forms  it  has  been  formed  into  beau- 
tiful moldings,  picture-frames,  and  other  ornamental  articles. 
When  cool  it  is  quite  stiff  and  hard,  and  is  quite  durable. 

Hands,  Care  of  the.—  Clean,  soft,  well-formed  hands  and 
Augers  are  indispensable,  not  only  to  those  who  would  make 
a  good  appearance  in  society,  but  to  those  who  desire  to  excel 
in  fine  work.  The  engraver,  the  watchmaker,  and  many  other 
artists  find  their  usefulness  and  power  greatly  impeded  by 
anything  that  affects  the  keenness  of  their  sense  of  touch  and 
the  delicacy  with  which  they  can  handle  minute  objects.  The 
power  of  a  well-educated  sense  of  touch  to  detect  irregularities 
iu  various  articles  is  something  marvelous.  The  turner  can, 
by  his  mere  fingers,  detect  in  a  turned  rod  defects  which  are 
invisible  to  the  eyes  and  of  which  the  callipers  give  no  indica- 
tion. The  extraordinary  extent  to  which  this  sense  may  be 
educated  is  best  seen  in  the  blind,  who  train  themselves  to 
recognize  various  articles  and  even  faces  by  means  of  touch. 
Their  ability  to  read  by  simply  feeling  raised  letters  is  also  a 
wonderful  example  of  the  power  of  this  sense  when  properly 
educated. 

Like  every  other  sense,  that  of  touch  must  be  carefully 
trained  in  order  to  make  it  efficient;  but  all  the  training  in  the 
world  will  fail  to  make  it  sensitive  if  the  tactile  surface  is 
dulled  or  injured.  The  things  which  tend  to  dull  this  sense 
are  chiefly  these: — 

1.  Dirt.  Any  foreign  matter  which  is  allowed  to  remain  on 
the  hands  combines  with  the  perspiration  and  forms  an  incrus- 
tation which  dulls  the  sense. 

2.  Handling  hot  articles.  Some  persons  train  themselves  to 
handle  very  hot  articles,  and  prescriptions  have  even  been 
given  for  rendering  the  hands  insensible  to  heat.  In  all  such 
caees  the  skin  is  toughened  and  thickened,  and  the  fine  sense 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  231 

of  touch  dulled;  but  so  long  as  holders  of  various  kinds  are 
easily  obtained,  there  can  hardly  be  any  reason  or  excuse  for 
such  a  desecration  of  the  hand.  Boys  are  apt  to  try  such  ex- 
periments for  the  purpose  of  astonishing  their  friends  and 
companions;  but  the  loss  which  they  sustain  far  outweighs 
any  momentary  gratification  derived  from  such  exhibitions. 

3.  Corrosive  chemicals.  Almost  all  salts  and  acids  when 
brought  into  contact  with  the  skin  tend  to  make  it  rough  and 
insensitive ;  and  in  the  case  of  the  hands,  to  disfigure  and  in- 
jure them.  This  is  also  true  of  strong,  coarse  soap,  containing 
much  alkali. 

For  keeping  the  hands  soft  there  is  nothing  better  than  a 
little  vaseline  well  rubbed  into  the  hands  before  going  to  bed. 
The  new  compound  known  as  lanoline,  which  is  the  carefully 
purified  grease  obtained  from  sheep's  wool,  is  also  said  to  be 
peculiarly  efficacious. 

The  hands  may  be  preserved  dry  for  delicate  work  by  rubbing 
a  little  club-moss  pollen  or  lycopodium  over  them.  This,  which 
is  an  extremely  fine  resinous  powder,  is  so  repellant  of  moist- 
ure that  if  a  small  quantity  of  it  be  sprinkled  on  the  surface 
of  the  water  contained  in  a  basin  or  pail,  the  hand,  by  a  little 
adroitness,  may  be  plunged  to  the  bottom  of  the  liquid  without 
becoming  wet. 

Harness. —  Great  errors  are  frequently  committed  in  the 
care  of  harness,  and  it  often  happens  that  from  ignorance  or 
want  of  thought  much  injury  is  done.  This  arises  principally 
from  the  fact  that  there  are  two  very  distinct  parts  of  all 
harness,  and  each  requires,  or  at  least  will  bear,  very  dis- 
tinct treatment.  Those  parts  which  require  to  be  pliable 
and  soft  should  never  be  dressed  with  shellac  varnishes  or 
drying  oils,  as  all  such  compounds  tend  to  make  the  leather 
hard  in  a  short  time,  so  that  it  soon  cracks  and  becomes  weak. 
There  are  some  parts,  however,  such  as  the  saddle,  blinders, 
etc.,  which  are  never  expected  to  bend.  Varnish  does  not 
hurt  these  parts,  but,  on  the  contrary,  greatly  improves  their 
appearance. 


232  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

All  harness  that  is  in  constant  use  should  be  washed,  oiled, 
and  blacked,  at  frequent  intervals.  Some  harness  should  be 
oiled  three  or  four  times  a  year,  while  carriage  harness,  which 
is  used  only  once  or  twice  a  week,  if  kept  in  a  clean  harness- 
room  or  harness-closet,  will  need  oiling  only  once  a  year,  un- 
less after  exposure  to  drenching  rain,  when  it  should  be  care- 
fully oiled  and  blacked  as  soon  as  it  is  dry  enough  to  absorb 
the  oil.  There  is  danger  of  oiling  a  harness  too  much.  When 
the  leather  appears  so  thoroughly  saturated  with  oil  that  the 
oleaginous  substance  oozes  from  the  pores,  and  absorbs  dust 
that  may  be  floating  in  the  atmosphere,  the  leather  does  not 
need  oiling.  The  leather  should  always  be  in  such  a  con- 
dition, when  oiled,  that  it  will  absorb  the  oil  and  leave  a  clean 
surface. 

When  a  hai'ness  is  to  be  oiled,  take  it  in  a  clean  and  warm 
room  in  cold  weather,  or  on  a  few  clean  boards  out  of  doors  in 
warm  weather;  unbuckle  all  the  parts,  and  wash  the  surface 
clean  with  strong  soapsuds.  Wherever  there  may  be  a  coating 
of  gum,  if  soapsuds  will  not  remove  it  readily,  dip  a  coarse  rag 
in  spirits  of  turpentine  and  rub  the  surface  rapidly.  A  little 
turpentine  or  benzine  will  remove  a  heavy  coating  of  gum 
readily;  but  if  applied  in  such  quantity  as  to  soak  into  the 
leather  it  will  injure  it.  Before  the  oil  is  applied,  the  leather 
should  be  warmed  through  and  through.  As  soon  as  the  har- 
ness appears  dry  on  the  surface,  and  before  the  leather  has 
become  as  dry  as  tinder  to  the  middle,  apply  the  oil.  Traces, 
and  some  other  parts  of  a  harness  which  are  exposed  to  wet 
and  mud,  are  not  liable  to  have  too  much  oil  applied  to  them. 

Neatsfoot-oil  is  preferable  to  any  other,  as  it  will  keep  the 
leather  soft.  We  once  knew  a  farmer  who,  not  understanding 
that  linseed-oil  when  laid  on  leather  would  render  it  hard  and 
stiff,  applied  a  coat  of  it  to  his  carriage  harness,. which  made 
the  leather  so  stiff  and  hard  that  the  surface  would  crack 
badly  whenever  the  pieces  were  bent. 

When  the  oil  is  about  to  be  applied,  lay  a  piece  of  harness 
on  a  bench  or  smooth  board,  and  use  a  paint-brush  or  swab  to 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  233 

lay  on  the  oil.  Let  the  oil  be  kept  in  a  lai-ge  milkpan,  so  that 
all  small  pieces  like  lines  and  straps  may  be  dipped  in  the  oil 
and  drawn  slowly  through  it.  "^Vith  the  thumb  and  fingers 
slip  the  oil  back  on  the  straps,  and  let  it  drop  into  the  pan. 
By  using  a  large  pan,  one  can  oil  a  harness  in  a  few  minutes 
in  a  neat  and  thorough  manner,  without  wasting  any  oil. 

The  government  harness  dressing  is  said  to  be  prepared  as 
follows:  One  gallon  of  neatsfoot-oil,  two  pounds  of  bayberry 
tallow,  two  pounds  beeswax,  two  pounds  of  beef  tallow.  Put 
the  above  in  a  pan  over  a  moderate  fire.  When  thoroughly 
dissolved  add  two  quarts  of  castor-oil ;  then,  while  on  the  fire, 
stir  in  one  ounce  of  lampblack.  Mix  well,  and  strain  through 
a  fine  cloth  to  remove  sediment;  let  cool. 

A  composition  which  not  only  softens  the  harness  but 
blackens  it  at  the  same  time,  is  made  as  follows:  Put  into  a 
glazed  pipkin  2  ozs.  of  black  resin;  place  it  on  a  gentle  fire; 
when  melted,  add  3  ozs.  of  beeswax.  When  this  is  melted, 
take  it  from  the  fire,  add  ^  oz.  of  lampblack  and  ^  dr.  of  Prus- 
sian blue  in  fine  powder.  Stir  them  so  as  to  be  perfectly 
mixed,  and  add  sufficient  spirits  of  turpentine  to  form  a  thin 
paste;  let  it  cool.  To  use  it,  apply  a  thin  coat  with  a  piece 
of  linen  rag  pretty  evenly  all  over  the  harness;  then  take  a 
soft  polishing-brush  and  brush  it  over,  so  as  to  obtain  a  bright 
surface. 

Icehouses. —  An  icehouse  of  some  kind  or  another  is  indis- 
pensable to  every  country-house  where  ice  is  not  delivered  by 
the  regular  dealers,  or  wh  're  it  can  not  be  obtained  when 
wanted. 

There  should  be  no  regular  floor  to  an  icehouse, —  a  sand  or 
loam  floor  being  the  best,  with  a  layer  of  sawdust  or  planer 
shavings  four  or  five  inches  deep,  makes  an  excellent  founda- 
tion for  the  ice  to  rest  on;  and  it  is  not  a  bad  idea  to  sprinkle 
a  thin  layer  of  sawdust  between  every  layer  of  ice  as  it  is  being 
packed  away. 

The  size  of  an  icehouse  will  depend  somewhat  on  the  number 
of  persons  who  will  have  to  be  supplied  from  it ;  but  as  a  rule, 


234  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

when  the  members  of  a  family  do  not  exceed  eight,  a  building 
10  by  14  feet,  and  10  feet  high  at  the  plates,  will  contain  quite 
sufficient  for  all  household  and  dairy  purposes.  If  possible, 
build  the  house  on  a  slightly  elevated  spot,  and  have  a  drain 
made  from  one  of  its  sides  leading  down  to  some  layer  drain- 
ing a  lower  ground.  Where  convenient,  lay  a  couple  of  tiers 
of  brick  or  stone  (the  latter  is  to  be  preferred)  for  a  sort  of 
foundation.  See  that  this  brick  or  stone  work  is  level  all  round, 
and  in  a  fit  condition  to  receive  the  ends  of  the  studding.  Cut 
the  studding  for  the  two  sides  to  the  proper  length,  and  enough 
of  them  to  stand  about  three  feet  apart.  The  studs  for  the 
ends  may  be  left  uncut,  and  stood  up  in  their  places.  A  door- 
way, 4  feet  wide,  should  be  left  in  one  end,  and  the  bottom  of 
the  door  should  be  at  least  3  feet  up  from  the  ground.  A  door 
4  by  5  feet  will  be  quite  large  enough,  and  it  should  be  hung 
so  as  to  swing  on  the  outside.  Nail  good  hemlock  boards  on 
the  inside  of  the  studding,  keeping  the  lower  edge  of  the  first 
board  close  down  to  tho  brick  or  stone  work.  See  that  the 
joints  of  the  ends  of  the  boards  are  "broken," — that  is,  have 
no  two  but-joints  come  on  the  same  stud  unless  there  is  one 
or  more  boards  between  the  joints.  Board  the  inside  walls 
around  the  four  sides  to  the  height  of  the  side-studs,  and  then 
board  the  outside  in  the  same  way.  When  this  is  done,  put  on 
the  roof,  which  may  be  formed  of  two  tiers  of  sound  boards, 
or  it  may  be  made  of  shingles  and  boards  together,  which  may 
be  of  an  inferior  quality.  Some  people  insist  on  filling  in  be- 
tween the  boarding  of  the  walls  with  sawdust,  tanbark,  or 
other  like  materials,  but  this  is  not  at  all  necessary,  as  the  air 
confined  between  the  walls  acts  as  a  much  better  protection 
than  any  of  the  materials  named,  and  the  filling  is  apt  to  rot 
the  siding. 

After  the  house  has  been  well  boarded  up,  strips  of  pine 
about  two  inches  wide  should  be  nailed  up  and  down  over  the 
studs  on  the  outside  boarding,  and  common  siding  or  weather 
boarding  should  be  nailed  on  these  strips,  thus  inclosing  the 
building  a  third  time.    This  operation  leaves  an  air-spac« 


THE  WOEKSHOP  COMPANION.  235 

between  the  siding  and  the  boarding  of  about  one  inch,  which 
adds  greatly  to  the  effectiveness  of  tuO  building  for  preserving 
ice.  This  would  give  a  thickness  to  the  walls  of  about  eight 
inches,  which  is  made  up  as  follows:  weather  boarding,  one 
inch;  air-space,  one  inch;  hemlock  boarding,  one  inch;  air- 
space between  boarding,  four  inches;  inside  boarding,  one 
inch.  The  studs  used  in  the  building  are  intended  in  the  fore- 
going description  to  be  2  by  4;  but  when  expense  is  not  so 
much  of  an  object,  2  by  6  may  be  employed.  Double  doors — 
that  is,  a  door  on  the  outside  and  one  on  the  inside — would 
make  the  house  much  more  effective  than  if  only  one  door  was 
used.  A  ventilation  must  be  made  tlu-ough  the  roof  similar  to 
a  chimney:  this  may  be  ornamented  to  suit  the  taste. 

If  a  permanent  icehouse  of  a  more  expensive  nature  is  re- 
quired, then  stone  or  brick  may  be  employed  for  the  outer 
walls,  and  a  slate  or  shingle  roof  may  be  put  on  it ;  but  when 
brick  or  stone  is  used  there  should  be  a  board  wall  inside  all 
round,  with  an  air-space  of  three  or  four  inches  between  it  and 
the  stone  wall.  An  icehouse  should  never  have  windows  in  it, 
as  the  admission  of  light  is  objectionable.  The  floor,  in  the 
case  of  a  stone  or  brick  house,  should  be  made  of  concrete  or 
cement,  and  should  be  lower  in  the  center  and  at  one  end,  so 
as  to  permit  the  water  to  flow  to  the  drain, — w^ich,  of  course, 
would  have  to  be  provided  in  any  case 

A  wooden  icehouse  may  be  made  to  look  quite  ornamental 
and  pleasing,  if  properly  bailt  and  aicelf  painted ;  and  if  cedar 
or  chestnut  is  used  for  sills,  it  will  last  for  thirty  or  forty 
years. 

And  now  a  word  about  packing  ice.  The  first  thing  neces- 
sary is  to  place  a  layer  of  sawdust,  spent  tanbark,  or  straw,  on 
the  floor  or  ground,  to  a  thickness  of  three  or  four  inches,  and 
on  this  place  the  ice,  which  will  be  cut  in  square  blocks. 
Keep  the  ice  as  solid  and  compact  as  possible,  and  leave  a 
space  of  about  four  inches  between  the  ice  and  the  boarding ; 
and,  as  the  blocks  are  built  up  solid  fill  this  space  with  saw- 
dust.   Fill  up  all  the  chinks  and  openings  between  the  blocks 


236  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

with  small  pieces  of  ice,  or  pack  them  solid  with  sawdust. 
Everything  depends  on  keeping  the  air  out  from  between  the 
blocks.  When  the  house  is  filled,  or  as  much  is  packed  in  as 
is  intended,  the  whole  should  be  covertd  with  a  coating  of 
sawdust  not  less  than  two  feet  deep.  When  any  of  the  ice  is 
removed  for  use,  or  for  other  reasons,  the  part  exposed  by  the 
removal  should  be  carefully  covered  again. 

Care  should  be  taken  of  the  sawdust,  as  it  may  be  used  for 
many  years.     Pine  sawdust  is  the  best. 

After  the  house  is  filled  and  properly  closed  up — or,  in  other 
words,  when  the  ice  is  "harvested," — the  earth  should  be 
banked  up  against  the  building  all  round,  so  as  to  prevent  any 
air  from  getting  under  the  sill  or  into  the  building  at  any 
point. 

Lights,  Night. —  The  convenience  of  having  at  command  a 
small  light  which  will  burn  all  night  and  give  sufficient  light 
to  enable  the  watcher  to  perform  the  usual  offices  of  the  sick- 
room has  led  to  numerous  inventions  having  this  end  in  view. 
One  of  the  oldest  was  that  known  as  the  allnight,  which  was 
simply  a  cake  of  wax  with  a  slender  wick  in  the  center.  This 
was  the  prototype  of  the  modern  mortar,  which  is  merely  a 
very  thick  dumpy  candle  with  a  very  slender  wick. 

In  providing  a  light  to  burn  all  night  in  the  sick-room  great 
care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  everytliiug  that  can  injure  the 
air  of  the  apartment.  For  this  reason  no  volatile  combustible, 
such  as  kerosene,  naphtha,  or  any  similar  burning  fluid  should 
ever  be  used :  they  are  sure  to  give  off  vapors  which  make  the 
air  offensive  and  dangerous  It  is  a  common  practice  to  use  a 
small  kerosene-lamp  turned  down  low.  Any  person  coming 
out  of  the  fresh  air  into  a  room  where  such  a  lamp  has  been 
burning  for  some  hours,  can  not  fail  to  notice  its  injurious 
effect  upon  the  air;  and  we  can  readily  imagine  what  the 
result  must  be  when  the  delicate  lungs  of  a  sick  person  are 
forced  to  breathe  such  an  atmosphere. 

When  gas  can  be  had  it  forms  one  of  the  most  convenient 
sources  of  illumination ;  but  a  special  burner  should  be  used, 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  23T 

—  one  which  allows  very  little  gas  to  pass.  If  we  use  an 
ordinary  burner  and  attempt  to  regulate  the  flame  by  the  stop- 
cock, much  gas  will  be  wasted,  and  some  of  it  will  escape  into 
the  room  unburned. 

One  of  the  best  devices  is  the  old  "perpetual  lamp,"  as  it 
was  called.  This  consists  of  a  small  cup  about  three  quarters 
of  an  inch  in  diameter  and  made  of  very  thin  metal,  through 
the  center  of  which  is  passed  a  tube  about  the  sixteenth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter.  The  tube  does  not  rise  in  the  cup  quite  to 
the  level  of  the  edge,  and  by  means  of  a  few  grains  of  shot  it 
is  easy  to  sink  the  cup  so  that  the  upper  end  of  the  tube  will 
be  about  the  level  of  the  liquid  in  which  the  cup  is  made  to 
float.  This  liquid  is  any  kind  of  fixed  oil — olive,  lard,  cotton- 
seed, sperm,  etc.  It  is  easy  to  ignite  the  oil  at  the  upper  end 
of  the  tube,  when  it  will  continue  to  burn  steadily,  and  will 
give  a  clear  and  bright  but  small  light  for  a  whole  night. 

The  oil  is  best  held  in  a  gl"<.ss  tumbler,  the  sides  of  which 
allow  the  light  to  pass  through. 

We  ha¥«  often  made  these  night-lamps  out  of  half  the  shell 
of  an  English  walnut  and  a  common  glass  "bugle,"  such  as  is 
used  by  ladies  for  trimming  some  parts  of  their  dress.  In  the 
bottom  of  the  shell  bore  a  hole  that  will  just  admit  the  bugle, 
and  fasten  the  latter  in  place  with  a  little  sealing-wax.  Then 
float  the  shell  in  oil,  sinking  it  with  fine  shot  until  the  oil  rises 
to  the  upper  end  of  the  bugle.  As  the  oil  rises  considerably 
by  capillary  attraction,  the  top  of  the  bugle  will  be  above  the 
general  level  of  the  outside  oil  by  an  amount  which  will  de- 
pend upon  the  diameter  of  the  tube.  Then  hold  the  flame  of 
a  match  or  well-folded  slip  of  paper  over  the  top  of  tlie  tube 
until  the  oil  ignites,  when  it  will  continue  to  burn  with  a  clear 
steady  light  until  the  oil  is  all  gone.  Those  who  prefer  to 
use  tallow  or  solid  parafiine  can  easily  keep  these  substances 
melted  by  causing  the  flame  to  heat  a  stout  copper  wire,  which 
may  be  bent  so  as  to  pass  down  into  the  combustible. 

Such  lights  are  easily  covered,  so  as  to  make  the  room  quite 
dark,  by  means  of  an  old  bandbox  or  hatbox. 


238  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

Magic  Lantern  Pictures. —  For  all  the  better  class  of  pict- 
ures nothing  can  equal  good  photographs  on  glass;  and  now 
that  amateur  photographic  apparatus  has  come  into  such  gen- 
eral use,  the  use  of  the  magic  lantern,  both  for  amusement  and 
instruction,  will  no  doubt  be  greatly  extended.  The  photo- 
graphs may  be  readily  colored  with  aniline  colors,  which  may 
be  obtained  of  almost  any  shade,  and  which  are  perfectly 
transparent. 

A  simple  method  of  forming  perfectly  accurate  outline  pict- 
ures (such  as  diagrams,  etc. )  is  as  follows : — 

A  sheet  of  gelatine,  such  as  is  used  for  tracing,  is  securely 
fixed  over  an  engraving,  and  with  a  sharp  steel  point  (a  stout 
needle  fixed  in  a  wooden  handle  answers  well)  the  lines  of  the 
original  are  traced  pretty  deeply  on  the  transparent  substance. 
Lead-pencil  or  crayon-dust  is  then  lightly  rubbed  in  with  the 
finger,  and  the  picture  is  at  once  ready  for  use.  The  effect  of 
these  drawings  in  the  lantern  is  said  to  be  excellent. 

Illustrations  for  common  lanterns  are  easily  made  by  taking 
ordinary  engravings  on  very  thin  paper  and  mounting  them 
with  Canada  balsam  between  two  plates  of  glass.  The  balsam 
renders  the  paper  quite  transparent,  and  the  engraving  may 
be  colored  before  being  mounted.  The  paper  on  which  the 
engraving  is  printed  must  be  thin,  and  if  there  should  be  any 
printing  on  the  back  of  the  engraving  the  paper  must  be  split 
by  the  usual  well-known  means. 

Methylated  Spirit.— This  liquid  is  frequently  named  in 
English  recipes,  and  sometimes  puzzles  the  American  reader. 
Wherever  methylated  spirit  is  to  be  used,  alcohol  of  95  p.  c. 
may  be  substituted  for  it.  The  term  is  applied  in  England  to 
alcohol  to  which  one  tenth  of  its  volume  of  wood  naphtha 
(strength  not  less  than  60  degrees  o.  p.)  has  been  added,  the 
object  of  such  addition  being  that  of  rendering  the  mixture 
undrinkable  through  its  offensive  odor  and  taste.  The  purifica- 
tion of  this  mixed  spirit,  or  the  separation  of  the  two  alcohols, 
though  often  attempted,  has  always  proved  a  failure  commer- 
cially.   It  might  be  supposed  that,  owing  to  the  low  boiling- 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  239 

point  of  methylie  alcohol,  simple  distillation  would  effect  this ; 
but  experience  has  shown  that  both  spirits  distil  over  simulta- 
neously. This  is,  no  doubt,  due  to  the  difference  of  their  vapor 
densities. 

Methylated  spirit,  being  sold  duty  free,  can  be  employed  by 
the  chemical  manufacturer  as  a  solvent  in  many  processes  for 
which,  from  its  greater  cost,  duty-paid  spirit  would  be  com- 
mercially inapplicable.  But  in  the  preparation  of  medicines 
containing  spirit  as  the  vehicle  or  menstruum  by  which  more 
active  substances  are  administered,  the  employment  of  methy- 
lated spirit  is  highly  improper.  The  Council  of  the  Pharma- 
ceutical Society  obtained  from  the  Pharmacopoeia  Committee 
of  the  Medical  Council  the  decided  opinion  that  "the  substi- 
tution of  'methylated'  for  'rectified'  spirit  in  any  of  the  pro- 
cesses of  the  Pharmacopoeia  should  be  strictly  prohibited," 
and  in  Great  Britain  the  use  of  methylated  spirit  in  the  prep- 
aration of  tinctures,  sweet  spirits  of  nitre,  common  ether,  or 
any  medicine  to  be  used  internally,  is  now  prohibited  by  law. 

The  steady  refusal  of  our  American  legislators  to  permit  the 
use  of  methylated  or  some  similar  form  of  alcohol  in  the  arts, 
duty  free,  is  but  one  illustration  out  of  thousands  of  the  man- 
ner in  which  true  progress  is  obstructed  by  mere  politicians. 

Moire  Metallique.— This  method  of  ornamenting  tin  goods 
was  at  one  time  very  fashionable ;  but  like  many  other  good 
things  it  has  fallen  somewhat  into  disfavor,  probably  owing 
to  the  "cheap"  look  given  by  inferior  work.  The  process 
consists  in  various  methods  of  bringing  out  or  displaying  the 
crystalline  character  of  tin.  This  is  effected  by  first  obtaining 
a  good  crystallization,  and  then  dissolving,  by  means  of  suit- 
able acids,  that  portion  of  the  metal  which  has  not  been  crys- 
tallized and  which  seems  to  have  less  power  of  resisting  acids 
than  the  crystals.  The  surface  may  afterwards  be  varnished 
or  lacquered  with  plain  or  colored  lacquer,  and  very  beautiful 
effects  produced. 

The  following  is  the  original  process  of  M.  Baget: — 

After  cleansing  away  every  extraneous  matter,  as  dirt  or 


240  THE  WOEKSHOP  COMPANION. 

grease,  with  warm  soapy  water,  rinse  the  tin  in  clean  water. 
Then,  after  drying  it,  give  it  a  heat  to  the  temperature  of  bare 
sufferance  to  the  hand,  and  expose  it  to  the  vapor  of  any  acid 
that  acts  upon  tin,  or  the  acid  itself  may  be  poured  on  or  laid 
on  with  a  brush,  the  granulated  crystallization  varying  accord- 
ing to  the  strength  of  the  wash  and  the  heat  of  your  plates. 
Hence,  it  must  be  perceived,  whatever  quantity  is  required  for 
any  particular  job  of  work  should  be  made  all  at  one  time, — 
no  two  makings  coming  away  alike,  but  depending  entirely 
upon  accident. 

Wash  1. —  Take  1  part  by  measure  of  sulphuric  acid,  and 
dilute  it  with  five  times  as  much  water. 

Wash  2. — Take  of  nitric  acid  and  water  equal  quantities, 
and  keep  the  two  mixtures  separate.  Then,  take  of  the  first 
10  parts,  and  1  part  of  the  second.  Mix,  and  apply  the  same 
with  a  pencil  or  sponge  to  the  surface  of  the  heated  tin,  re- 
peating the  same  several  times,  until  the  material  acted  upon 
loses  its  heat,  or  you  may  be  satisfied  with  the  appearance  of 
your  work.  A  transparent  varnish  is  now  to  be  laid  on,  much 
whereof  will  be  absorbed,  and  will  of  course  be  affected  by 
any  coloring  matters  you  may  mix  with  it.  These,  however, 
should  not  be  opaque  colors ;  and  a  good  polish  being  given  to 
the  work  produces  that  enviably  brilliant  material  we  find  so 
much  in  use. 

Another  formula  which  is  said  to  give  excellent  results  is  as 
follows : — 

The  plate-iron  to  be  tinned  is  dipped  into  a  tin  bath  com- 
posed of  200  parts  of  pure  tin,  3  parts  of  copper,  and  1  part  of 
arsenic.  Thus  tinned,  the  sheet-iron  is  then  submitted  to  the 
seven  following  operations: — 

1.  Immersing  in  lye  of  caustic  potassa,  and  washing. 

2.  Immersing  in  aqua  regia,  and  washing. 

3.  Immersing  in  lye  of  caustic  potassa,  and  washing. 

4.  Quickly  passing  through  nitric  acid,  and  washing 

5.  Immersing  in  lye  of  caustic  potassa,  and  washing. 

6.  Immersing  in  aqua  regia,  and  washing. 

7.  Immersing  in  lye  of  caustic  potassa,  and  washing. 


THE   WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  941 

Every  time  that  the  sheet-iron  is  placed  in  aqua  regia  the 
oxide  of  tin  thereby  produced  must  be  entirely  removed,  since 
otherwise  spots  would  form.  The  quickly  passing  through 
nitric  acid  softens  the  unpleasant  metallic  glare  which,  at 
cei'taiu  angles  of  refraction,  renders  the  design  invisible.  The 
copal  resins  deserve  the  preference  for  coating  the  sheet-iron 
after  the  crystallization  has  been  thus  obtained. 

Nails.— It  is  estimated  that  there  are  over  4,000  different 
kinds  and  sizes  of  nails  in  market.  Amongst  the  most  impor- 
tant of  these  are:  1, common  cut-nails;  2, finishing-nails, which 
are  more  slender  and  have  not  as  large  heads  as  common  nails ; 

3,  wrought-nails,  used  when  it  is  necessary  to  clinch  the  nail ; 

4,  clout-nails,  which  have  broad  heads  and  are  used  for  nailing 
cloth,  leather,  sheet-iron,  etc.,  to  wood;  5,  countersunk  nails, 
in  which  the  top  of  the  head  is  flat;  6,  billed  nails,  in  which 
the  head  projects  to  one  side. 

The  terms  threepenny,  sixpenny,  etc.,  as  applied  to  nails, 
arose  from  the  fact  that  before  cut-nails  were  invented  all  the 
nails  in  use  were  made  by  hand  and  sold  by  count.  One  him- 
dred  sixpenny  nails  were  sold  for  sixpence  (12^  cents).  After- 
ward, when  competition  had  reduced  the  price,  one  hundred 
sixpenny  nails  were  sold  for  a  much  smaller  price.  As  soon 
as  the  cut-nails  were  brought  out,  the  price  fell  so  materially 
that  the  nails  were  sold  by  weight,  but  the  old  designations 
were  still  retained. 

It  is  sometimes  stated  that  the  word  "penny"  is  merely  a 
corruption  of  "pound,"  and  that  "sixpenny"  nails  were  "six- 
pound"  nails,  or  six  pounds  to  the  1000.  This  is  mere  im- 
agination. 

Bevan  determined  that  a  wrought-iron  nail,  73  to  the  pound 
and  2y  inches  long,  driven  into  dry  elm  to  the  depth  of  one 
inch  across  the  grain,  required  a  pull  of  327  lbs.  to  extract  it ; 
and  the  same  nail  driven  endwise  or  longitudinally  into  the 
same  wood  was  extracted  by  a  force  of  257  lbs.  The  same  nail 
driven  two  inches  endwise  into  hard  pine  was  drawn  by  a  force 
of  257  lbs.;  and  to  draw  out  one  inch  took  87  lbs.  only. 


242  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

The  relative  adhesion,  therefore,  in  the  same  wood,  when 
driven  transversely  or  longitudinally,  is  100  to  78,  or  about 
4  to  3  in  dry  elm ;  and  100  to  46,  or  about  2  to  1,  in  pine ;  and 
in  like  circumstances,  the  relative  adhesion  to  elm  and  pine  is 
as  2  or  3  to  1. 

The  progressive  depths  of  the  same  nail  driven  into  hard 
pine  by  simple  pressure  were  as  follows : — 

i  inch,  by  a  pressure  of  24  pounds. 
I     "  "  "  76        " 

1  «         "  "  235       " 
li     "          "           "            400        " 

2  "  "  "  610        " 

To  extract  the  same  nail  from  a  depth  of  one  inch  out  of 

Dry  oak  required  a  pull  of    .     .     .    507  pounds. 
Dry  beech     "  "     "     .     .    .     667       " 

Green  sycamore  "     "     .    .     .    312 


i( 


From  these  experiments  we  may  infer  that  such  i  jail 
driven  two  inches  into  dry  oak  would  require  a  force  of  more 
than  half  a  ton  to  extract  it  by  a  steady  pull.  A  common 
screw  of  one  fifth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  was  found  to  have  an 
adhesive  force  of  about  three  times  that  of  a  nail  2^  inches 
long  and  weighing  73  to  the  pound  when  both  entered  the  same 
distance  into  the  wood. 

Haupt,  in  his  "Military  Bridges,"  gives  a  table  of  the  hold- 
ing power  of  wrought-iron  tenpenny  nails,  77  to  the  pound, 
and  about  3  inches  long.  The  nails  were  driven  through  a 
one-inch  board  into  a  block,  and  the  board  was  then  dragged 
in  a  direction  perpendicular  to  the  length  of  the  nails.  Taking 
a  pine  plank  nailed  to  a  pine  block  with  eight  nails  to  the 
square  foot,  the  average  breaking  weight  per  nail  was  found 
to  be  380  pounds.  Similar  experiments  with  oak  showed  the 
breaking  weight  to  be  415  pounds.  With  12  nails  to  the  square 
foot  the  holding  power  was  542J  pounds ;  and  with  six  nails  in 
pine  463i  pounds.  The  highest  result  obtained  was  for  12  nails 
to  the  square  foot  in  pine,  the  breaking  weight  being  in  this 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  243 

ease  612  pounds  per  nail.  The  average  strength  decreases  with 
the  increase  of  surface. 

Tredgold  gives  the  force  in  pounds  required  to  extract  three- 
penny brads  from  dry  Christiana  deal  at  right  angles  to  the 
grain  of  the  wood  as  58  pounds.  The  force  requii*ed  to  draw  a 
wrought-iron  sixpenny  nail  was  187  pounds,  the  length  forced 
into  the  wood  being  one  inch.  The  relative  adhesion  when 
driven  transversely  and  longitudinally  is  in  pine  about  2  to  1. 
To  extract  a  common  sixpenny  nail  from  a  depth  of  one  inch 
in  dry  beech,  across  grain,  required  167  pounds;  in  dry  Chris- 
tiana deal,  across  grain,  187  pounds,  and  with  grain  87  pounds. 
In  elm  the  force  required  was  327  poimds  across  grain,  and 
257  with  gi'ain.  In  oak  the  figure  given  was  507  pounds  across 
grain. 

From  further  experiments  it  would  appear  that  the  holding 
power  of  spike-nails  in  fir  is  from  460  to  730  pounds  per  inch 
in  length,  while  the  adhesive  power  of  screws  two  inches  long, 
0'22  inch  in  diameter  at  the  exterior  of  the  threads,  12  to  the 
inch,  driven  into  half-inch  board,  was  790  pounds  in  hard  wood 
and  about  half  that  amount  in  soft  wood. 

The  force  necessary  to  break  or  tear  out  a  half-inch  iron  pin, 
applied  in  the  manner  of  a  pin  to  a  tenon  in  the  mortice,  the 
thickness  of  the  board  being  0"87  inch,  and  the  distance  of  the 
center  of  the  hole  from  the  end  of  the  board  1'05  inch,  was 
976  pounds. 

As  the  strength  of  the  tenon  from  the  pin-hole  may  be  con- 
sidered as  in  proportion  to  the  distance  from  the  end,  and  also 
to  the  thickness,  we  may  for  this  species  of  wood — dry  oak — 
obtain  the  breaking  force  in  pounds  nearly  by  multiplying 
together  one  thousand  times  the  distance  of  the  hole  from  the 
end  by  the  thickness  of  the  tenon  in  inches. 

These  facts  will  enable  us  to  determine  approximately  the 
number  of  nails  required  for  any  piece  of  work.  The  following 
table,  which  gives  the  denomination  of  the  nail,  its  length,  and 
the  number  contained  in  a  pound,  will  enable  us  to  complete 
the  estimate: — 


244 


THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 


DENOMINATION    OF  NAIL,    LENGTH, 

AND    NUMBER   IN  A  POUND. 

3 

-penn 

y.  •   •   • 

1  inch 

•            • 

.     557  nails. 

4 

li 

(( 

• 

.     .    353 

5 

2  inches, 

.    232 

6 

3 

.     167 

7 

2i 

.     141 

8 

2i 

.     101 

10 

2f 

.      68 

12 

3 

.      54 

20 

H 

.      34 

30 

4 

.      26 

40 

4i 

.      20 

BOAT-SPIKl 

IS. 

SHIP-SPIKES. 

Length. 

No.  to  lb. 

Length 

I. 

No.  to  lb. 

3  inches, 

.  17-5 

4  inches,    .     . 

8 

4      " 

.  12-57 

5 

4-37 

5      " 

.     7-2 

6 

4-2 

6      " 

.     4-97 

7 

2-75 

7      " 

.     3-62 

8 

1-74 

8      " 

.     2-95 

9 

1-55 

9       " 

.     21 

10 

1.15 

10       " 

.     1-98 

Professor 

W.  R 

.  Johnson  foi 

md 

tha 

t  a 

plain 

spil 

ce  -375  inch 

square,  driven  3f  inches  into  seasoned  Jersey  yellow  pine  or 
unseasoned  chestnut  required  a  force  of  about  2,000  lbs.  to 
extract  it;  from  seasoned  white  oak,  about  4,000  lbs.;  and 
from  well-seasoned  locust  about  6,000  lbs. 

Everyone  is  familiar  with  the  fact  that  a  piece  of  rusty  iron, 
wrapped  in  cotton  or  linen  cloth,  soon  destroys  the  texture  of 
the  fabric.  A  rusting  nail,  for  example,  if  laid  upon  a  few 
rags,  will  soon  produce  large  holes  in  them ;  or  it  will,  at  least, 
render  every  point  that  it  touches  so  rotten  that  the  cloth  will 
readily  fall  to  pieces  at  these  points,  and  holes  will  be  pro- 
duced by  the  slightest  hard  usage.  From  this  well-known  fact 
we  may  draw  the  conclusion  that  iron,  during  the  process 
of  rusting,  tends  to  destroy  any  vegetable  fiber  with  which  it 
may  be  in  contact.  This  explains,  to  a  certain  extent,  the 
rapid  destruction  of  the  wood  that  surrounds  the  nails  used  in 
outdoor  work,  whereby  the  nail  is  soon  left  in  a  hole  much 
larger  than  itself,  and  all  power  of  adhesion  is  lost.    Part  of 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  245 

this  effect  is,  no  doubt,  due  to  the  action  of  water  and  air, 
which  creep  along  the  surface  of  the  nail  by  capillary  attrac- 
tion, and  tend  to  produce  rottenness  in  the  wood  as  well  as 
oxidation  in  the  iron.  But  when  we  compare  an  old  nail-hole 
with  a  similar  hole  that  has  been  exposed  during  an  equal 
time,  but  filled  with  a  wooden  pin  instead  of  an  iron  nail,  we 
find  that  the  wood  surrounding  the  wooden  pin  has  suffered 
/east;  and  we  may,  therefore,  fairly  attribute  a  destructive 
action  to  the  rusting  of  the  iron.  It  might,  at  first  sight,  be 
supposed  that,  as  the  oxide  of  iron  is  more  bulky  than  the  pure 
iron,  the  hole  would  be  filled  more  tightly  and  the  nail  held 
more  firmly  to  its  place.  But,  although  this  effect  is  produced 
in  the  first  instance,  yet  the  destruction  of  the  woody  fiber  and 
the  pulverization  of  the  oxide  soon  overbalance  it,  and  the 
nail  becomes  loose.  Of  course,  tlie  iron  itself  being  also  de- 
stroyed, its  strength  is  diminished ;  and  we  have,  therefore,  a 
double  incentive  for  preventing  or  diminishing  the  action  that 
we  have  described.  The  only  way  to  prevent  this  action  is  to 
cover  the  nail  with  some  substance  that  will  prevent  oxidation. 
This  might  be  done  by  tinning,  as  is  common  with  carpet-tacks, 
which  are  now  extensively  tinned  for  the  purpose  of  prevent- 
ing them  from  rusting,  and  thus  rotting  holes  in  the  carpets. 
Coating  them  with  oil  or  tallow  would  be  efficient,  if  the  act 
of  driving  did  not  remove  the  protecting  matter  entirely  from 
a  large  portion  of  the  surface.  But,  even  then,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  oil  or  fat  is  stripped  off  the  point  and  gathered  about 
the  head  in  such  a  way  as  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  air  and 
moisture  into  the  hole. 

The  most  efficient  way  to  coat  nails  with  grease  is  to  heat 
them  to  a  point  sufficient  to  cause  the  grease  to  smohe,  and 
then  pour  the  grease  over  them,  stirring  them  about  in  a  pot 
or  other  vessel.  "When  the  nails  are  hot,  the  melted  grease 
will  attach  itself  to  them  more  firmly  than  it  would  have  done 
if  they  were  cold.  Indeed,  so  firmly  that  it  will  require  actual 
abrasion  of  the  metal  to  separate  it.  In  erecting  fences, 
laying  plank  or  board  sidewalks  and  the  like,  it  becomes  an 


246  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

important  matter  to  secure  the  nails  against  the  influence  that 
we  have  mentioned,  and  yet  the  work  must  be  done  rapidly 
and  cheaply.  Nails  may  toe  readily  prepared  as  described,  or 
they  may  simply  be  dipped  in  oil  or  paint  at  the  moment  when 
they  are  driven  in.  And  we  have  found,  by  experience,  that 
in  cases  where  it  is  not  advisable  to  paint  the  whole  fence,  it 
is,  nevertheless,  a  good  plan  to  go  over  the  work  and  touch  the 
head  of  every  nail  with  a  brush  dipped  in  oil  or  paint  prepared 
so  as  to  be  of  the  same  color  as  old  wood. 

Nine  Oils.—  Readers  of  Dickens  can  not  fail  to  remember 
the  bottle  of  "Nine  Oils"  which  Sissy  Jupe  got  for  her  father, 
and  kept  so  long  waiting  for  his  return.  This  favorite  old 
remedy  has  disappeared  from  modern  pharmacopoeias,  and  few 
druggists  know  what  it  is.  The  following  is  the  old  recipe  for 
compounding  it: — 

Train-oil  1  gallon,  oil  of  turpentine  1  quart,  oil  of  brick  and 
amber,  each  5  ozs.;  camphorated  spirits  of  wine,  10  ozs.;  Bar- 
badoes  tar,  2i  lbs.;  oil  of  vitriol,  1  oz. 

It  used  to  be  a  favorite  remedy  with  farriers,  and  also  with 
workmen  who  were  much  exposed  to  bruises,  etc. 

Oil  of  Brick.—  This  ingredient  is  frequently  named  in  old 
prescriptions  and  recipes.  It  is  simply  olive-oil,  into  which  is 
thrown  a  few  pieces  of  porous  brick,  made  red-hot.  The  vessel 
is  immediately  covered  over  with  a  still  or  alembic  head,  and 
fire  being  put  beneath,  the  oil  is  distilled.  The  product  was 
supposed  to  possess  very  peculiar  and  valuable  properties. 
It  is  extremely  limpid,  almost  like  water,  is  colorless,  and  does 
not  dry  up  readily  nor  clog  when  drying,  nor  is  it  fat  and  greasy 
like  the  fixed  oils.  It  is  used  in  several  quack  medicines ;  and 
in  mechanics  is  employed  by  the  lapidary  as  a  vehicle  to  hold 
the  diamond-dust  which  he  is  in  the  habit  of  using. 

Factitious  Oil  of  Brick.—  An  article  very  different  from  that 
just  described,  but  which  is  generally  sold  in  the  shops  for  oil 
of  brick,  is  composed  of  linseed-oil,  1  lb.;  spirits  of  turpentine, 
8  ozs.;  oil  of  hartshorn,  1  oz.;  Barbadoes  tar,  1  oz.  Mix  to- 
gether with  aid  of  heat.   This  is  useless  for  any  purpose  in  the 


THE   WORKSHOP  COMPAIJION.  24t 

arts,  but  is  sometimes  employed  as  an  embrocation  in  gout, 
rheumatism,  palsy,  etc. 

During  the  days  of  oil-gas  there  was  found  in  the  vessels  in 
which  the  oil  was  compressed  for  use  in  portable  gas-lamps  an 
oil  known  as  "oil-gas  oil."  One  thousand  cubic  feet  of  oil-gas 
yielded  by  compression  nearly  a  gallon  of  this  oil,  which  was 
used  for  dissolving  india-rubber  and  for  various  purposes  in 
the  arts.  Gray  says  that  it  is  the  best  rubber  solvent  known, 
and  that  in  the  making  of  many  varnishes  which  are  required 
to  dry  quickly  it  is  invaluable.  It  is  entirely  unknown  now  in 
the  arts,  but  it  is  probable  that  it  owed  all  its  good  properties 
to  benzole  (not  the  liquid  commonly  known  as  benzine). 

Paint,  Luminous.— The  first  of  those  phosjyhon.  which  gave 
rise  to  what  we  now  call  luminous  paint  was  that  known  as 
Bologuian  stone.  It  was  discovered  by  Vincenzio  Caseariola, 
a  shoemaker  of  Bologna,  about  the  year  1630.  This  man  hav- 
ing found  near  Monte  Paterno  a  very  heavy  shining  substance 
(sulphate  of  barytes  or  heavy  spar)  supposed  that  it  must  con- 
tain silver,  and  he  consequently  exposed  it  to  heat,  in  the  hope 
of  extracting  that  metal.  He  failed  to  get  any  silver,  but  he 
found  that  whenever  the  mineral,  after  being  heated  and  ex- 
posed to  strong  sunlight,  was  placed  in  a  dark  room,  it  con- 
tinued to  emit  faint  rays  of  light  for  some  hours  afterwards. 
In  consequence  of  this  interesting  discovery  the  Bolognian 
spar  came  into  considerable  demand  among  natural  philos- 
ophers and  the  curious  in  general,  so  that  the  best  method  of 
preparing  it  became  an  object  of  even  some  pecuniary  impor- 
tance ;  for,  as  the  reader  must  remember,  this  was  long  before 
the  day  of  lucifer  matches.  The  family  of  Zagoni  were  the 
most  successful  in  this  pursuit;  and  in  consequence  furnished 
large  quantities  of  Bolognian  phosphorus  to  all  parts  of  Europe, 
till  the  subsequent  discovery  of  more  powerful  phosphor!  put 
an  end  to  their  monopoly. 

The  best  method  of  preparing  the  mineral  is  first  to  heat  it 
to  ignition;  then  finely  powder  it,  and  make  it  into  a  paste 
with  mucilage.    This  paste  is  to  be  divided  into  pieces  about  a 


248  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  which  are  then  dried  in  a  moderate 
heat  and  afterwards  carefuUj-  calcined  at  a  red  heat.  Some 
management  is  requisite  in  conducting  the  calcination  that  it 
may  be  neither  too  much  nor  too  little,  by  either  of  which 
faults  the  luminous  quality  is  veiy  materially  injured. 

At  present  the  sulphide  of  calcium  is  preferred  to  any  other 
substance, —  a  paint  made  according  to  the  following  formula 
giving  excellent  results: — 

Take  oyster-shells  and  clean  them  with  warm  water;  put 
them  into  the  fire  for  half  an  hour ;  at  the  end  of  that  time 
take  them  out  and  let  them  cool.  When  quite  cool  pound 
them  fine,  and  take  away  any  gray  parts,  as  they  are  of  no  use. 
Put  the  powder  in  a  crucible  in  alternate  layei's  with  flowers 
of  sulphur.  Put  on  the  lid  and  cement  with  sand  made  into  a 
stiff  paste  with  beer.  When  dry  put  over  the  fire  and  bake  for 
an  hour.  Wait  until  quite  cold  before  opening  the  lid.  The 
product  ought  to  be  white.  You  must  separate  all  gray  parts, 
as  they  are  not  luminous.  Make  a  sifter  in  the  following 
manner:  Take  a  pot,  put  a  piece  of  very  fine  muslin  very 
loosely  across  it,  tie  around  with  a  string,  put  the  powder  into 
the  top,  and  rake  about  until  only  the  coarse  powder  remains. 
Open  the  pot  and  you  will  find  a  vei-y  small  powder.  Mix  it 
into  a  thin  paint  with  gum-water,  as  two  thin  applications  are 
better  than  one  thick  one.  This  will  give  a  paint  that  will 
remain  luminous  far  into  the  night,  provided  it  is  exposed  to 
the  light  daring  the  day. 

Luminous  Enamel. —  Five  parts  of  the  ordinary  luminous 
powder  prepared  from  oyster-shells  as  previously  directed ; 
ten  of  fluor-spar,  cryolite,  or  other  similar  fluoride;  one  of 
barium  borate;  powdered,  mixed,  made  into  a  cream  with 
water,  painted  on  the  glass  or  stone  article,  dried,  and  fired 
in  the  usual  way  for  enamels.  If  the  article  contains  an  oxide 
of  iron,  lead,  or  other  metal,  it  must  be  first  glazed  with  ground 
felspar,  silica,  lime  phosphate,  or  clay,  to  keep  the  sulphur  of 
the  sulphide  from  combining  with  the  metal.  The  result  is  an 
enameled  luminous  article. 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  249 

Luminous  Paj^er.— Take  50  parts  of  lumiuous  powder,  pre- 
pared as  previously  directed,  4  parts  bichromate  of  potash, 
and  4  of  gelatine.  These  are  to  be  thoroughly  dried,  and 
mixed  by  grinding.  One  part  of  the  resulting  powder  is  stirred 
with  2  parts  of  boiling  water  to  a  thickly  fluid  paint,  one  or 
two  coats  of  which  are  applied  with  a  brush  to  the  paper  or 
pasteboard  to  be  made  luminous.  To  avoid  inequality  in  the 
thickness  of  the  layer  of  paint  the  paper  is  passed  through  a 
sort  of  calender  with  rolls  at  a  proper  distance  to  insure  a 
uniform  spreading  of  the  luminous  mass.  The  rolls  may  be 
heated,  if  desired. 

Paint  for  Iron  Exposed  to  the  Weather.— The  late  John 
C.  Trautwine,  who  was  one  of  our  most  experienced  engineers, 
tells  us  that  the  best  paints  for  preserving  iron  exposed  to  the 
weather,  are  prepared  from  the  pulverized  oxides  of  iron,  such 
as  yellow  ard  red  iron  ochers,  or  brown  hematite  iron  ores 
finely  ground,  and  simply  mixed  with  linseed-oil  and  a  dryer. 
White  lead,  applied  directly,  requires  incessant  renewal;  and, 
indeed,  probably  exerts  a  corrosive  effect.  It  may,  however, 
be  applied  over  the  more  durable  colors  where  appearance 
requires  it.  Red  lead  is  said  to  be  very  durable  when  pure. 
An  instance  is  recorded  of  pump-rods  in  a  well  200  feet  deep, 
near  London,  England,  which  having  first  been  thus  painted, 
were  in  use  forty-five  yeai's,  and  at  the  expiration  of  that  time 
their  weight  was  found  to  be  precisely  the  same  as  when  new, 
showing  that  rust  had  not  affected  them.  When  the  size  of 
the  exposed  iron  admits  of  it,  Faraday  suggests  that  its  free- 
dom from  rusting  may  be  promoted  to  a  large  extent  by  first 
heating  it  thoroughly,  and  then  dipping  it  into  or  washing  it 
with  linseed-oil,  which  will  then  penetrate  slightly  into  the 
iron.  For  tinned  iron  exposed  to  the  weather  on  roofs,  rain- 
pipes,  etc.,  Spanish  brown  is  a  very  durable  color.  The  tin  is 
frequently  found  perfectly  bright  and  protected  where  this 
color  has  been  used,  after  an  exposure  of  forty  or  fifty  years. 
Paint  containing  much  white  lead  generally  washes  off  in  a 
few  years  by  the  action  of  rain. 


250  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

Where  the  article  is  exposed  to  mechanical  action,  however, 
the  addition  of  red  lead  generally  improves  the  paint ;  and  in 
some  cases,  such  as  carriage-irons,  pure  red  lead  is  decidedly 
the  best  for  a  first  coat.  It  may,  when  dry,  be  painted  over 
and  concealed  by  any  other  color.  To  secure  the  best  results 
the  red  lead  must  be  selected  with  great  care,  and  mixed  and 
applied  properly.  Pure  red  lead  powder,  after  being  slightly 
pressed  down  with  the  finger,  shows  no  lead  crystals.  When 
they  are  visible  it  is  merely  partly  converted,  and  not  first 
quality.  It  should  be  ground  in  pure  old  linseed-oil,  and  if 
possible  used  up  the  same  day  to  prevent  it  combining  with 
the  oil  before  it  is  applied,  losing  in  quality.  No  drier  is 
necessary,  as  in  the  course  of  a  few  days  the  oil  forms  a  per- 
fectly hard  combination  with  the  lead.  American  linseed-oil  is 
as  good  as  any  imported,  where  the  manufacturer  has  given  it 
age,  and  not  subjected  it  to  heat,  as  is  the  custom,  by  steaming 
it  in  a  cistern  to  qualify  it  quickly  for  the  market.  It  dete- 
riorates in  quality  when  heated  above  100  deg.  Fah.  This  red 
lead  paint  spreads  very  easily  over  a  surface,  and  the  best  of 
finish  can  be  made  with  it,  even  by  a  novice  in  painting. 

Painters'  Cream.—  This  is  a  mixture  used  by  painters  to 
cover  their  work  when  they  are  obliged  to  leave  it  for  some 
time.  It  may  be  washed  off  with  a  sponge  and  water,  so  as  to 
leave  the  painting  in  the  exact  state  in  which  it  was  when 
work  was  suspended.  It  is  composed  of  pale  nut-oil,  6  ozs.; 
mastic,  1  oz.;  sugar  of  lead,  previously  ground  in  the  least 
possible  quantity  of  oil,  i  oz.  Dissolve  the  mastic  in  the  nut- 
oil,  add  the  sugar  of  lead,  and  then  add  water,  beating  the 
mixture  all  the  time  until  it  looks  like  cream. 

Another  recipe  is  as  follows:  Take  of  very  clear  nut-oil  3  oz.; 
mastic  in  tears,  pulverized,  ^  oz.;  sal  saturni,  in  powder  (ace- 
tate of  lead,  3  oz.  Dissolve  the  mastic  in  oil  over  a  gentle  fire, 
and  pour  the  mixture  into  a  marble  mortar,  over  the  pounded 
salt  of  lead;  stir  it  with  a  wooden  pestle,  and  add  water  in 
small  quantities,  till  the  matter  assumes  the  appearance  and 
consistence  of  cream,  and  refuses  to  admit  more  water. 


THE   WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  251 

Paintings,  Repairing.— In  Europe  the  art  of  repairing  and 

revarnishing,  or,  as  it  is  called,  "restoring"  pictures,  is  quite 
a  business ;  and  as  this  country  grows,  the  business  will  no 
doubt  become  more  general  and  lucrative.  In  its  best  phases 
the  art  of  restoring  pictures  demands  great  skill  and  special 
taste ;  but  there  are  certain  cases  which  may  be  met  by  mere 
routine  system.  Some  of  the  ablest  scientific  men  have  de- 
voted their  attention  to  the  improvement  of  the  methods  in 
actual  use ;  and  many  of  their  suggestions  are  well  worthy  of 
attention  by  the  practical  man. 

Valuable  paintings  should  be  kept  in  a  dry  place,  and  one 
free  from  foul  air.  Dampness  soon  destroys  the  canvas  or 
wood  upon  which  the  picture  may  be  painted;  and  the  foul 
emanations  from  stables,  sinks,  graveyards,  etc.,  soon  destroy 
the  finer  colors,  owing  to  the  action  of  the  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen and  carbonic  acid.  Hence  churches,  vaults,  stables,  and 
similar  places,  are  entirely  unfit  for  storing  paintings. 

The  darkening  of  the  lights  in  oil  paintings  may  be  quickly 
changed  by  the  application  of  the  solution  of  peroxide  of  hy- 
drogen,—  a  compound  which  is  now  found  in  market  under  the 
name  of  "Golden  Bleaching  Liquid."  Under  the  action  of  this 
liquid  the  sulphides  are  at  once  converted  into  sulphates. 

Paintings  which  have  been  injured  may  often  be  restored 
by  the  exercise  of  a  little  skill.  In  such  eases  the  following 
directions  will  prove  useful. 

When  by  the  continued  pressure  of  some  hard  body  the 
canvas  presents  either  a  concavity  or  convexity  in  a  portion 
of  its  surface,  it  must  be  well  wet  in  that  part,  and  left  grad- 
ually to  dry  in  some  cool  place,  keeping  it  constantly  under 
pressure. 

To  make  the  colors  adhere  when  blistered,  etc.— When  the  color 
has  separated  from  the  priming,  whilst  the  priming  still  re- 
mains firm,  the  swollen  and  detached  part  is  first  rubbed  over 
with  the  same  paste  which  will  be  presently  mentioned  as  used 
for  lining.  Then,  with  a  pin  or  needle,  little  holes  are  punc- 
tured in  the  part,  and  more  paste  rubbed  over  these  holes  with 


252  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

a  pencil,  and  worked  about  so  that  it  shall  pass  through  them. 
The  surface  is  then  wiped  clean,  and  over  the  spot  a  pencil  is 
passed  that  has  been  dipped  into  linseed-oil.  This  serves  to 
soften  it.  A  warm  iron  is  then  passed  rapidly  over  the  raised 
surface, which  attaches  itself  to  the  priming  as  before.  Should 
it  bo  necessary  to  line  the  canvas  with  a  new  one,  it  should  be 
done  previously. 

When  a  canvas  is  broken,  rent,  or  perforated  in  any  part, 
the  piece  of  canvas  that  is  used  to  repair  the  damage  is  dipped 
into  melted  wax,  and  applied  the  moment  it  is  taken  out, 
warm  as  it  is,  to  the  part,  which  has  been  previously  brought 
together  as  well  as  possible,  and  also  saturated  with  the  wax. 
With  great  care  you  flatten  down  the  piece;  so  that  as  the 
wax  chills  and  concretes,  the  parts  adhere  and  are  kept  smooth. 
The  whole  being  made  perfectly  level,  and  the  excess  of  the 
wax  removed,  a  mastic  made  of  white  lead  mixed  with  starch 
is  applied;  for  oil-color  does  not  adhere  well  to  wax.  The 
white  is  afterwards  colored  thin,  or  by  washes,  according  to 
the  tone  of  the  surrounding  parts,  and  repainted. 

When  the  priming  of  a  canvas  has  become  detached,  or  the 
cloth  is  so  old  as  to  need  sustaining,  it  is  customary  to  line 
the  picture.  But  if  the  canvas  is  greatly  injured,  the  painting 
itself  is  transferred  to  a  new  subjectile.  In  order  to  render 
the  old  canvas  and  the  color  softer  and  more  manageable, 
expose  the  picture  for  several  days  to  damp  When  all  is 
ready,  the  first  step  is  to  fasten,  by  a  thin  flour-paste,  white 
paper  over  the  whole  painted  side  of  the  picture,  to  prevent 
the  colors  scaling  off.  Having  a  new  canvas  duly  stretched 
on  a  strong  frame,  a  uniform  coat  of  well-boiled  paste,  made 
of  rye-flour  with  a  clove  of  garlic,  is  spread  nicely  over  it  by 
means  of  a  large  brush.  With  dispatch,  yet  care,  a  coat  of  the 
same  paste  is  spread  likewise  on  the  back  of  the  picture.  The 
latter  is  then  laid  upon  the  new  cloth,  the  two  pasted  sides  of 
course  together.  With  a  ball  of  linen  the  usual  rubbing  is 
given  with  a  strong  hand,  beginning  at  the  center,  and  passing 
to  the  edges,  which  must  be  carefully  kept  in  place  the  while. 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  253 

In  this  way  the  air  is  expelled,  which  remaining  would  cause 
blisters. 

The  picture  thus  lined  is  then  placed  upon  a  smooth  table, 
the  painted  side  down,  and  the  back  of  the  new  canvas  is 
rubbed  over  boldly  with  any  suitable  smoothing  instrument, 
such  as  is  used  for  linen,  paper,  or  the  like ;  and  a  wai-m  iron 
is  then  passed  over  the  picture,  having  on  the  other  side  a 
board  to  resist  the  pressure.  The  paste  being  heated  by  this 
iron,  penetrates  on  the  side  of  the  picture,  and  fixes  still  more 
firmly  the  painting,  while  on  the  other  side  the  redundant  part 
of  the  paste  escapes  through  the  tissue  of  the  new  cloth,  so 
that  there  remains  everywhere  an  equal  thickness.  The  iron 
must  not  be  too  hot;  and  before  applying  it  several  sheets 
of  paper  should  be  interposed  between  it  and  the  paper  that 
was  at  first  pasted  on  the  painting,  and  which  would  not  be 
sufficient. 

When  the  lined  picture  is  sufficiently  dry  the  paper  last 
mentioned  is  damped,  by  passing  over  it  a  sponge  moistened 
with  tepid  water.  It  soon  detaches,  and  with  it  is  removed 
the  paste  that  secured  it  to  the  picture.  All  that  remains  is  to 
clean  the  painting,  and  where  needed  to  restore  it. 

The  above  operation  will  not,  of  course,  be  attempted  by  the 
amateur,  except  for  experiment  upon  some  picture  of  little 
worth;  for  even  practised  hands  frequently  injure  what  they 
were  employed  to  preserve. 

Pith  for  Cleaning. —  Kemlo  says  the  stalk  of  the  common 
mullein  affords  the  best  pith  for  cleaning  watch-pinions.  It 
may  be  found  in  old  fields  and  by-places  all  over  the  country. 
Winter,  when  the  stalk  is  dry,  is  the  best  time  to  gather  it. 
Elder-pith  is  good,  and  is  easily  obtained. 

Plaster  Casts. —  The  methods  of  making  ordinary  plaster 
casts  are  well  known ;  but  there  are  a  few  special  methods  of 
treating  this  substance  which  it  may  be  well  to  describe.  The 
material  employed  is  plaster  of  Paris,  which  is  obtained  by 
exposing  the  purer  varieties  of  gypsum  or  alabaster  to  a  heat 
a  little  above  that  of  boiling  water,  when  it  becomes  a  fine, 


254  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

white  dry  powder.  Sometimes  the  gypsum  is  first  reduced  to 
a  fine  powder  and  then  heated  in  iron  pans ;  and  in  this  case 
the  operation  is  sometimes  called  "boiling"  plaster,  because 
tke  escape  of  the  water,  with  which  crystalline  gypsum  is 
always  combined,  gives  to  the  fine  powder  the  appearance  of 
boiling.  Plaster  of  Paris,  after  being  boiled,  rapidly  dete- 
riorates when  exposed  to  the  air;  consequently  when  plaster 
is  required  for  making  cements  or  for  other  purposes  for  which 
a  good  article  is  needed,  care  must  be  taken  to  secure  that 
which  is  good  and  freshly  boiled.  The  Italian  image-makers 
always  use  a  superior  quality  of  plaster,  and  it  may  generally 
be  obtained  from  them  in  small  quantity. 

The  employment  of  gypsum  in  casting,  and  in  all  cases  where 
impressions  are  required,  is  very  extensive.  A  thin  pulp  of 
1  part  gypsum  and  2^  parts  water  is  made.  This  pulp  hardens 
by  standing.  The  hardening  of  good  well-burnt  gypsum  is 
effected  in  one  or  two  minutes,  and  more  quickly  in  a  moderate 
heat.  Models  are  made  in  this  substance  for  galvano-plastic 
purposes,  for  metallic  eastings,  and  for  ground-works  in  porce- 
lain manufacture.  The  object  from  which  the  cast  is  to  be 
taken  is  first  well  oiled  to  prevent  the  adhesion  of  the  gypsum. 

Casts  are  frequently  taken  from  living  objects;  and  a  cast 
of  the  human  face  is  often  taken  for  the  purpose  of  preserving 
the  likeness  of  a  person.  The  art  is  easily  acquired,  and  only 
demands  a  little  care.  Let  the  person,  a  mold  of  whose  face 
is  to  be  taken,  lay  down  upon  his  back ;  let  the  hair  be  tied 
back,  or  otherwise  kept  back  by  grease,  or  by  flour-dough 
placed  on  it ;  grease  the  eyebrows,  and,  if  necessary,  the  beard 
and  whiskers;  also  anoint  the  rest  of  the  face  with  sweet  oil. 
Then  place  a  quill  in  each  nostril,  keeping  it  thei'e  with  dough. 
Tie  a  towel  round  the  face,  and  make  it  fit  tight  with  dough 
also.  The  patient  being  thus  prepared,  mix  up  the  required 
quantity  of  plaster  of  Paris  with  warm  water,  and  just  as  it  is 
ready  to  set  pour  it  upon  the  face,  taking  care  that  the  eyes 
and  mouth  are  closed,  and  the  outer  ends  of  the  quills  above 
the  plaster.    Use  a  pallet-knife  to  spread  the  plaster  evenly 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  255 

over  all  parts  of  the  face,  until  a  coat  is  formed  half  an  inch 
or  more  in  thickness.  In  about  two  minutes  it  will  set  suffi- 
ciently hard  to  be  removed.  When  dry  and  well  greased,  a 
cast  in  plaster  may  be  taken  from  the  mold,  or,  if  wetted,  a 
cast  in  wax  may  be  taken  with  equal  facility.  A  little  warm 
water  will  remove  the  dough,  etc.,  from  the  face.  In  this 
manner  casts  are  often  taken  of  tumors  and  skin  diseases,  the 
wax  casts  being  afterwards  colored.  For  wax  casts  a  good 
composition  is  white  wax  1  lb.;  turpentine  in  lumps  2  ozs.; 
flake  white  2  ozs.;  and  vermillion  to  color  the  whole. 

There  are  several  methods  of  hardening  gypsum.  One  of 
the  oldest  consists  in  mixing  the  burnt  gypsum  with  lime-water 
or  a  solution  of  gum-arabic.  Another,  yielding  very  good 
results,  is  to  mix  the  gypsum  with  a  solution  of  20  ounces  of 
alum  in  6  pounds  of  water.  This  plaster  hardens  completely 
in  15  to  30  minutes,  and  is  largely  used  under  the  name  of 
marble  cement.  Parian  cement  is  gypsum  hardened  by  means 
of  borax,—  1  part  borax  being  dissolved  in  9  parts  of  water, 
and  the  gypsum  treated  with  the  solution.  Still  better  results 
are  obtained  by  the  addition  to  this  solution  of  1  part  of  cream 
of  tartar. 

The  hardening  of  gypsum  with  a  water-glass  solution  is 
found  difficult,  and  no  better  results  are  obtained  than  with 
ordinary  gypsum.  Fissot  obtains  artificial  stone  from  gypsum 
by  burning  and  immersions  in  water,  first  for  half  a  minute, 
after  which  it  is  exposed  to  the  air  again  for  two  to  three 
minutes,  when  the  block  appears  as  a  hardened  stone.  It 
would  seem  from  this  method  that  the  augmentation  in  hard- 
ness is  due  to  a  new  crystallization.  Hardened  gypsum,  treated 
with  stearic  acid  or  with  paraffine,  and  polished,  much  resem- 
bles meerschaum:  the  resemblance  may  be  increased  by  a  col- 
oring solution  of  gamboge  and  dragon's  blood,  to  impart  a 
faint  red-yellow  tint.  The  cheap  artificial  meerschaum  pipes 
are  manufactured  by  this  method. 

Plaster  of  Paris  treated  with  paraffine  may  be  readily  cut  and 
turned  in  the  lathe,  and  forms  a  very  pleasant  material  to  work. 


-56  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

When  plaster  is  used  for  architectural  purposes  and  greater 
hardness  is  required,  a  small  quantity  of  lime  is  added.  This 
addition  gives  a  very  marble-like  appearance,  and  the  mixture 
is  much  employed  in  architecture,  being  then  known  as 
gypsum-marble  or  stucco.  The  gypsum  is  generally  mixed 
with  lime-water,  to  which  sometimes  a  solution  of  sulphate  of 
zinc  is  added.  After  drying,  the  surface  is  rubbed  down  with 
pumice-stone,  colored  to  represent  marble,  and  polished  with 
Tripoli  and  olive-oil.  Artificial  scagliola  work  is  largely  com- 
posed of  gypsum. 

Ordinary  casts  may  be  rendered  very  hard  and  tough  by 
soaking  them  in  glue  size  until  thoroughly  saturated,  and 
allowing  them  to  dry. 

Casts  of  plaster  of  Paris  may  be  made  to  imitate  fine  bronze 
by  giving  tliem  two  or  three  coats  of  shellac  varnish,  and  when 
dry  applying  a  coat  of  mastic  varnish,  and  dusting  on  fine 
bronze-powder  when  the  mastic  varnish  becomes  sticky. 

Rat-holes  may  be  effectually  stopped  with  broken  glass  and 
plaster  of  Paris. 

Porcelain  Finish. — White  paint,  suitable  for  reflectors,  may 
be  made  by  mixing  dry  white  zinc  carbonate  with  silicate  of 
potash  liquid.  After  each  coat  artificial  heat  should  be  em- 
ployed to  hasten  the  drying. 

Putty.— The  term  putty  is  applied  to  three  very  different 
articles.  The  mason  or  plasterer  gives  this  name  to  a  finely 
divided  and  smooth  paste  of  slaked  lime,  used  for  filling  cracks, 
finishing  off  delicate  parts  of  *he  work,  and  similar  purposes. 
The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  oxide  of  tin,  so  extensively 
used  as  a  polishing  powder  by  opticians,  and  fully  described 
in  the  article  on  "Polishing  Powders"  in  Part  I.  In  general, 
however,  when  "putty"  is  spoken  of  the  article  known  as 
glazier's  putty  is  meant.  It  is  used  for  setting  glass  in  windows, 
for  filling  cracks  and  nail-holes,  and  other  purposes. 

The  best  is  made  of  raw  linseed-oil  and  whiting,  the  latter 
being  simply  chalk  ground  in  a  mill  like  flour.  It  comes  out 
with  a  fine  flint  grit  in  it.    Before  making  putty  of  it,  a  few 


THE   WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  25 T 

old-fashioned  men,  who  believe  in  making  the  best  of  every- 
thing, wash  the  grit  out.  The  fine  flour  is  then  dried.  If  it  is 
not  dried  perfectly  it  takes  up  more  oil  than  is  desirable  or 
profitable.  From  500  to  600  pounds  — about  15  per  cent,  by 
weight,  of  raw  oil  to  85  per  cent  of  whiting  —  are  put  in  a 
chaser  and  thoroughly  mixed.  The  chaser  is  an  annular 
trough,  ten  feet  in  diameter.  From  a  vertical  shaft  in  the 
center  two  arms  extend,  on  the  ends  vt  which  are  heavy  iron 
wheels  that  rest  in  the  trough.  "When  the  shaft  revolves  the 
wheels  chase  each  other  around  the  trough.  When  mixed,  it 
is  packed  in  bladders  for  convenience  in  handling. 

The  adulteration  of  putty  is  effected  by  mixing  marble-dust 
with  whiting.  It  costs  about  a  quarter  of  a  cent  a  pound,  and 
whiting  costs  twice  that.  Paraffine  oils,  at  from  20  to  30  cents 
a  gallon,  are  used  instead  of  linseed-oil  at  60  cents.  The 
marble-dust  makes  the  putty  gritty,  and  the  cheap  oil  makes 
it  sticky. 

A  superior  article  of  putty  is  made,  however,  by  the  further 
addition  of  white  lead  in  oil,  Japan  varnish,  and  a  small  quan- 
tity of  turpentine,  which  makes  a  hard  cement  that  does  not 
shrink,  and  when  dry  can  be  rubbed  down  with  pumice-stone 
or  dusted  with  sandpaper,  so  smoothly  will  it  cut.  Even  in 
the  common  sorts  of  putty  it  is  well  to  use  some  white  lead  if 
a  hard  putty  is  desired.  Colored  putty  has  a  mixture  of  red 
ocher,  lampblack,  or  other  color,  with  the  whiting. 

For  stopping  large  cracks,  especially  when  leaks  are  to  be 
stopped,  the  compound  known  as  "aquarium  cement,"  and 
described  in  Part  I,  is  altogether  the  best  material  that  can  be 
used.  For  puttying  up  the  cracks  in  beehives  it  has  no  equal, 
as  it  does  not  contract  and  fall  out,  and  it  is  so  hard  that  no 
vermin  can  penetrate  a  crack  that  has  been  filled  with  it. 

Hard  Putti).—  Take  the  whiting,  mash  all  the  lumps  out  on 
the  stone,  and  mix  it  into  a  stiff  paste  by  adding  equal  parts 
of  Japan  and  rubbing  varnish ;  then  add  as  much  keg-lead  as 
you  think  will  make  it  work  free  with  the  knife;  then  add  tho 
rest  of  the  whiting  until  you  have  it  to  suit  you.    This  will 


258  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

sandpaper  good  with  one  day's  drying.  If  you  want  putty  that 
will  dry  quicker,  take  dry  white  lead  and  mix  with  equal  parts 
of  Japan  and  varnish,  to  which  add  a  few  drops  of  turpentine. 
This  is  very  soft  for  puttying,  but  can  be  sandpapered  in  from 
two  to  three  hours,  it  becoming  perfectly  hard  in  that  time. 

Soft  Puttij.—  Take  10  lbs.  of  whiting  and  1  lb.  of  white  lead ; 
mix  with  the  necessary  quantity  of  boiled  linseed-oil,  and  add 
to  it  i  a  gill  of  the  best  salad-oil.  The  last  prevents  the  white 
lead  from  hardening,  and  preserves  the  putty  in  a  state  suffi- 
ciently soft  to  adhere  at  all  times,  and  not,  by  getting  hard 
and  cracking  off,  suffering  the  wet  to  enter,  as  is  often  the  ease 
with  ordinary  hard  putty. 

To  Soften  Putty. —  1  lb.  of  pearlash,  3  lbs.  of  quick  stone 
lime ;  slake  the  lime  in  water,  then  add  the  pearlash,  and  make 
the  whole  about  the  consistence  of  paint.  Apply  it  to  both 
sides  of  the  glass  and  let  it  remain  for  twelve  hours,  when  the 
putty  will  be  so  softened  that  the  glass  may  be  taken  out  of 
the  frame  with  the  greatest  facility. 

Water-glass  Putty. — This  is  made  with  water-glass  (silicate 
of  soda)  and  zinc-white,  and  is  highly  recommended  as  a  putty 
for  iron. 

Rangoon  Oil. — This  material  is  frequently  alluded  to  in 
industrial  works  and  journals  published"  in  Great  Britain.  It 
is  simply  petroleum  obtained  from  Rangoon,  in  Burmah.  The 
crude  product  is  known  as  Rangoon  tar;  the  purified  oil  as 
Rangoon  oil.  Where  Rangoon  oil  is  prescribed,  a  good  quality 
of  kerosene  may,  in  almost  every  case,  be  used  in  its  stead. 

Razor-strops. —  The  following  article,  which  we  extract 
from  "Trade  Secrets,"  contains  the  pith  of  the  accessible  in- 
formation on  this  subject: — 

A  good  razor-strop  is  indispensable,  not  only  to  the  barber 
and  to  those  who  shave  themselves,  but  to  all  who  require 
exceedingly  sharp  cutting  tools.  The  surgeon,  the  wood-carver, 
the  microseopist,  and  many  other  artists,  are  greatly  aided  in 
their  work  by  the  use  of  a  good  strop. 

The  basis  of  the  best  strop  is  good  hard  leather.     By  hard 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  259 

leather  we  do  not  mean  leather  that  has  been  rendered  stiff 
and  hard  by  alternate  wetting  and  drying,  but  leather  that  is 
so  close  and  firm  in  texture  as  to  be  compressed  with  difficulty. 
Leather  that  is  soft  yields  to  the  pressure  of  the  edge  of  the 
tool,  and  rises  up  when  this  edge  passes  over  it.  Instead  of  a 
sharp  edge,  formed  by  two  planes  meeting  each  other,  a  blunt 
edge,  formed  by  the  meeting  of  two  curved  surfaces,  is  the 
result,  and  such  an  edge  can  never  cut  cleanly  and  well.  Tliis 
arises  partly  from  the  defective  form,  and  also  from  the  great 
increase  in  the  cutting  angle  of  the  edge. 

Good  hard  calfskin  probably  makes  the  best  surface  for  a 
strop.  Excellent  pieces  may  in  general  be  obtained  from  the 
bookbinders  for  a  trifle,  and  they  are  easily  attached  to  the 
wooden  holder  by  means  of  a  little  glue.  Two  surfaces  are 
generally  employed:  one  in  its  natural  condition,  and  the 
other  after  being  rubbed  with  some  very  hard  but  fine  powder. 
Of  the  powders  that  have  been  suggested  the  following  give 
good  results: — 

1.  Colcothar,  or  crocus,  well  burned  and  very  finely  pulver- 
ized. The  crocus  used  for  plate-polishing  is  too  soft ;  but,  by 
heating,  it  becomes  so  hard  that  it  polishes  steel  quite  rapidly. 

2.  Emery,  brought  to  a  state  of  the  very  finest  powder  by 
grinding  and  washing. 

3.  The  charcoal  of  wheat-straw,  or  the  straw  of  grasses 
growing  in  swamps  or  marshy  places.  This  charcoal  owes  its 
efficacy  to  the  small  quantity  of  silica  which  it  contains. 

4.  Diatomaeeous  earth.  Of  this  the  famous  Tripoli  powder 
is  a  good  example.  Such  earth  is  found  quite  extensively  in 
this  country.  In  its  natural  state  the  particles  are  too  coarse, 
and  the  earth  is  apt  to  be  gritty  from  the  presence  of  fine 
sand.  It  should  be  well  ground  in  a  mortar  and  carefully 
washed. 

5.  The  fine  carbonaceous  dust  deposited  in  gas-retorts  during 
the  process  of  making  gas.  The  particles  of  this  black  dust 
are  as  hard  as  diamonds,  and  cut  steel  rapidly:  they  are,  in 
fact,  very  minute  diamonds.     All  these  powders  ought  to  be 


260 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 


carefully  washed,  or  rather  "elutriated,"  so  as  to  separate  the 
coarser  particles  and  the  impalpable  dust,  which  does  no  good, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  clogs  the  cutting  action  of  the  material. 
After  being  carefully  washed  the  powder  is  dried,  and  either 
mixed  with  a  little  tallow  and  wax,  or  the  leather  is  first 
rubbed  very  lightly  with  the  greasy  mixture,  and  then  very 
lightly  coated  with  the  powder.  When  made  into  cakes  with 
grease  the  material  is  known  as  "razor-paste,"  and  is  sold  as 
such.  Crocus,  in  the  form  of  cakes  and  sticks,  can  also  be 
found  in  most  tool-stores. 

Diamond-dust,  or  the  powder  produced  by  rubbing  diamonds 
against  each  other  in  the  process  of  cutting  and  polishing 
them,  possesses  very  powerful  cutting  qualities;  and  when 
properly  used  on  suitable  "laps"  or  metal  blocks,  it  enables 
US  to  give  a  very  keen  edge  to  every  species  of  cutlery.  Cooley 
tells  us  that  "the  discovery,  or  assumed  discovery,  of  this  fact, 
a  few  years  since,  led  certain  knaves  to  extensively  advertise 
and  puff  a  spurious  preparation  (powdered  quartz)  under  the 
Aame  of  diamond-dust.  In  a  short  time  the  demand  for  the 
fictitious  article  became  immense.  It  soon,  however,  acquired 
a  bad  notoriety.  Instead  of  sharpening  cutting  instruments 
it  infallibly  destroyed  their  edge,  and  was  particularly  unfor- 
tunate in  converting  razors  into  saws.  This  discovery  was 
not  made  until  it  was  in  the  hands  of  the  majority  of  the  adults 
in  the  kingdom ;  nor  before  the  scamps  who  had  manufactured 
and  vended  it  had  realized  a  moderate  fortune." 

It  is  very  evident,  however,  that  the  evil  effects  in  this  case 
arose  from  wrong  methods  of  manufacture  and  preparation. 
Quartz  crystals, which  have  been  frequently  sold  as  'diamonds,' 
under  the  names  of  "California  diamonds,"  "Alaska  diamonds," 
etc.,  were  ground  as  finely  as  ordinary  stamping-mills  would 
grind  them:  the  powder  was  bolted  or  sifted,  and  in  this  state 
placed  on  the  market.  Now,  it  is  the  last  degree  of  pulveriza- 
tion that  costs  in  this  case.  It  is  easy  to  reduce  the  quartz  to 
coarse  powder,  and  not  very  difficult  to  obtain  a  tolerably  fine 
powder;  but  to  get  a  quartz  powder  sufficiently  fine  and  free 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  261 

from  coarse  particles  to  serve  as  a  polisher  or  sharpener  for 
cutlery  is  a  more  difiScult  matter.  From  experiments  we  have 
made  it  would  seem  that  pulverized  quartz  might  be  a  very- 
valuable  gi-inding  and  polishing  material ;  and  as  it  can  be  had 
in  almost  unlimited  quantities  for  nothing,  it  offers  a  fine  field 
for  enterprise.  When  thoroughly  ground  it  should  be  first 
sifted  or  bolted,  and  then  washed  or  elutriated,  so  as  to  sep- 
arate all  grit. 

Smoke-stains. —  To  remove  smoky  stains  from  walls  brush 
them  with  a  broom ;  then  wash  them  over  with  strong  pearlash 
water,  and  immediately  rinse  them  with  clean  water  before 
the  pearlash  is  dry.  When  dry,  give  the  walls  a  thin  coat  of 
freshly  slaked  lime,  containing  a  liberal  proportion  of  alum 
dissolved  in  hot  water.  Finish  with  whiting  and  good  size. 
Be  careful  not  to  apply  the  size  distemper  until  the  lime-wash 
is  dry,  as  the  latter  will  destroy  the  strength  of  the  size  if  the 
two  come  in  contact  while  wet. 

Spence's  Metal.— Great  hopes  were  at  one  time  entertained 
in  regard  to  this  mixture;  but  of  late  it  seems  to  have  lost 
favor.  It  is,  however,  a  really  valuable  preparation  for  some 
purposes.  It  is  prepared  by  melting  together  the  three  sul- 
phides of  iron,  zinc,  and  lead,  with  sulphur.  The  resulting 
dark  gray  mass  possesses  great  tenacity,  small  power  of  con- 
ducting heat,  a  specific  gravity  of  3-4,  and  a  melting  point  of 
about  320  deg.  Fah.  In  congealing  it  expands  like  type-metal, 
so  that  it  fills  every  crevice  of  the  mold  and  gives  a  most 
accurate  impression.  If,  when  melted,  it  is  poured  on  a  plate 
on  which  the  impression  of  the  hand  has  been  made,  the  cast- 
ing will  show  all  the  lines  and  markings  of  the  palm. 

It  possesses  in  a  remarkable  degree  the  power  of  resisting 
atmospheric  and  corrosive  influences.  Alkalies,  acids,  and 
even  aqua  regia  have  little  or  no  effect  on  it  except  at  a  com- 
paratively high  temperature.  Its  surface  was  scarcely  cor- 
roded after  being  exposed  to  the  action  of  aqua  regia  for  four 
weeks.  As  a  cement  for  joining  pipes  it  is  invaluable;  and  it 
has  been  extensively  used  in  England  for  gas  and  water  pipes. 


262  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

Sponges. —  The  sponge  is  one  of  the  most  useful  articles  in 
the  household  and  in  the  arts,  and  it  is  well  to  know  both  how 
to  choose  it  and  how  to  care  for  it.  The  best  sponges  come 
from  the  Mediterranean,  and  are  found  compressed  and  dried, 
so  that  when  soaked  and  fully  expanded  they  increase  to  sev- 
eral times  the  bulk  which  they  have  in  the  compressed  state. 
In  selecting  a  sponge  see  that  it  is  not  loaded  with  sand  and 
limy  matter.  To  cleanse  sponges  from  these  impurities  they 
are  beaten,  washed  in  water,  and  sometimes  soaked  in  acid. 
It  is  said,  however,  that  the  use  of  mineral  acids  destroys  the 
fiber  of  the  sponge,  and  this  is  very  probably  the  case.  It  is 
possible  that  dilute  acetic  acid  might  be  used  without  any  bad 
effects ;  and  the  cheap  acid  obtained  from  wood  by  destructive 
distillation  would  answer  every  purpose. 

Second-hand  sponges  are  frequently  offered  for  sale.  These 
are  picked  up  in  various  places,  washed,  soaked  in  solution  of 
chloride  of  lime  or  soda,  again  washed  in  clean  water,  and 
dried.  Such  sponges  do  not  last  long:  they  are  frequently 
half  rotten  before  they  reach  the  bleacher's  hands;  and  if  he 
does  not  do  his  work  thorouglily  they  may  even  convey  infec- 
tious matter.  But  being  cheap  and  pretty  they  meet  with  a 
ready  sale. 

For  all  ordinary  purposes  the  dark  color  of  the  sponge  is  no 
objection;  but  when  a  white  sponge  is  desired  the  following 
method  of  bleaching  has  been  highly  recommended: — 

Having  made  the  sponges  free  from  sand  and  calcareous 
matter  by  gently  beating  them,  wash  them  in  water,  squeeze 
tliem  as  dry  as  possible,  and  then  place  a  few  at  a  time  in  a 
solution  of  permanganate  of  potassa,  made  by  dissolving  one 
hundred  and  eighty  grains  of  the  salt  in  five  pints  of  water, 
and  pouring  a  portion  of  the  solution  into  a  clean  glazed  vessel. 
Let  them  remain  a  few  moments  until  they  have  acquired  a 
dark  mahogany-brown  color,  when  they  are  to  be  squeezed  by 
hand  to  free  them  from  the  solution.  They  are  then  dropped 
a  few  at  a  time  into  a  bleaching  solution  made  as  follows: 
Hyposulphite  of  soda,  ten  ounces;   water,  sixty-eight  fluid 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  263 

ounces ;  when  dissolved,  add  five  fluid  ounces  of  muriatic  acid. 
This  solution  should  be  made  the  day  before  being  wanted  for 
use,  in  order  that  the  sulphur  precipitated  by  the  acid  may  be 
easily  separated.  This  solution  is  poured  off  from  the  sulphur, 
and,  if  necessary,  is  strained  through  muslin  into  a  glazed 
vessel.  The  sponges  are  allowed  to  remain  in  this  solution  a 
few  moments,  squeezing  them  with  the  hand  occasionally  in 
order  that  every  part  may  be  reached  by  the  fluid ;  then  squeeze 
out  and  wash  through  several  waters  to  rid  them  of  the  sul- 
phurous odors.  They  may  be  completely  deodorized  by  wash- 
ing them  in  a  weak  alkaline  solution  of  bicarbonate  of  soda, 
about  one  hundred  grains  to  the  pint,  and  then  washing 
through  several  waters  to  free  from  any  traces  of  the  alkali. 
Much  caution  must  be  used  in  this  last  operation  lest  the 
bleaching  effect  of  the  previous  solutions  be  partly  neutralized. 
"When  the  sponges  are  nearly  dry  immerse  them  into  a  solution 
of  glycerine  water,  one  half  ounce  to  the  pint,  squeeze  them 
as  dry  as  possible,  and  dry  them  in  the  shade.  Be  sure  and 
not  let  direct  sunlight  on  them  until  dry.  They  will  be  as  soft 
and  white  as  wool. 

Sulphur  Casta. —  Sulphur  is  a  favorite  material  with  which 
to  make  casts  of  coins  and  similar  articles.  The  process  is  as 
follows: — 

Prepare  the  coin  or  other  body  of  which  the  mold  is  to  be 
made,  by  slightly  oiling  the  surface ;  or  if  the  body  be  made  of 
plaster  of  Paris,  the  back  of  it  is  to  touch  the  surface  of  water 
in  a  saucer  or  other  convenient  vessel,  until  the  water  just 
appears  upon  the  surface,  which  will  be  known  by  its  becoming 
more  glossy.  Then,  having  a  sufficiently  long  strip  of  thick 
paper,  from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  width,  fold 
this  round  the  coin ;  hold  the  paper  between  the  thumb  and 
fingers  of  the  left  hand,  or  if  the  medal  should  be  large,  or  if  a 
number  are  to  be  done  at  once,  fasten  the  end  of  the  paper 
with  paste.  Then  melt  by  a  very  slow  and  gentle  heat  a 
little  roll  brimstone.  When  in  a  melted  state,  and  while  quite 
liquid,  pour  it  steadily  upon  the  coin.    In  a  few  minutes  it  will 


264  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

become  crystallized  into  a  semitranspareut  mass,  which  may 
be  removed  from  the  coiu  or  plaster  cast,  and  will  be  found  to 
be  a  fine  and  very  exact  counterpart  of  the  original ;  and  having 
plaster  of  Paris  afterward  poured  into  it,  it  will  yield  a  very 
perfect  impression. 

Imitation  coins  may  be  made  of  sulphur  by  the  following 
method : — 

Prepare  first  the  requisite  molds  of  both  sides  of  the  coin 
by  pouring  plaster  of  Paris  on  each  side  alternately.  Make  a 
line,  or  other  mark,  on  each  mold,  to  show  the  position  that 
they  are  afterward  to  be  placed  in,  that  the  heads  and  devices 
may  be  in  such  a  position  relative  to  each  other  as  they  are  in 
the  original  coin.  Then  melt  the  sulphur; — that  is  best  which 
has  been  melted  two  or  three  times  before,  so  that  it  has 
acquired  a  light  brown  color.  When  ready  to  pour,  hold  the 
two  molds  at  the  proper  distance  from  each  other,  according 
to  the  thickness  of  the  coin,  and  with  the  marks  of  both  in  line 
with  each  other,  and  wind  round  the  edge  of  the  molds  a  strip 
of  card  in  such  a  manner  that  the  card  shall  go  very  nearly 
round  tliem, — a  small  vacuity  only  being  left  at  the  top.  This 
being  prepared,  hold  the  card  between  the  fingers  and  thumb, 
then  pour  in  the  sulphur,  and  as  it  shrinks,  pour  in  more,  until 
the  space  between  the  molds  is  full.  It  will  immediately  con- 
geal, and  when  removed  it  will  be  found  to  have  taken  a  fine 
impression  from  the  molds,  and  to  have  all  the  sharpness  of 
tlie  original  coin.  When  taken  out  it  may  be  trimmed  with  a 
knife  around  the  edges,  for  sulphur  has  the  property  of  re- 
maining soft  for  some  considerable  time  after  melting.  To 
give  the  artificial  coins  clearness,  and  an  appearance  of  an- 
tiquity, they  must  be  rubbed  all  over  with  black  lead,  and  then 
the  black  lead  removed  from  the  more  prominent  parts  with  a 
soft  damp  rag.  A  tine  metallic  appearance  is  given  to  medals 
by  varnishing  over  the  black  lead  surface  with  a  weak  solution 
of  dragon's  blood  in  spirits  of  wine,  instead  of  partially  rubbing 
the  black  lead  off.  The  molds  must  of  course  be  damped  pre- 
k^iously  to  using. 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  265 

Thatched  Roofs. — Good  straw  makes  a  most  excellent  cov- 
ering for  buildings  in  the  country ;  and  as  timber  is  becoming 
more  valuable  and  slate  can  only  be  obtained  from  consider- 
able distances,  it  is  probable  that  straw  will  be  used  more  and 
more  in  the  future.  Thatch  makes  a  warm  and  durable  roof; 
and  owing  to  its  porosity  it  tends  to  keep  the  air  in  stables 
and  outhouses  pure  and  clear,  since  the  law  governing  the 
"Diffusion  of  the  Gases"  has  full  play. 

The  great  objection  to  thatch  is  the  danger  from  fire ;  but  it 
may  be  rendered  comparatively  incombustible  by  soaking  it  in 
whitewash  made  of  lime,  or  whiting  and  size,  in  the  usual  way, 
to  every  four  gallons  of  which  has  been  added  one  pound  or 
rather  more  of  alum.  Alum  would  suffice  by  itself;  but  the 
rain  would  wash  it  off.  The  lime  and  size  form  a  film  over 
every  straw,  insoluble  in  water.  If  the  interior  of  a  thatched 
roof  be  kept  dry,  it  will  last  as  long  as  the  timber  which  sup- 
ports it. 

As  regards  the  durability  of  thatch  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions, Loudon  makes  the  following  statement: — 

"We  have  known  many  roofs  of  this  kind  in  Scotland  which 
have  lasted  the  length  of  a  farmer's  lease  (nineteen  or  twenty- 
one  years)  without  any  repairs;  the  surface  of  the  thatch  be- 
coming covered  with  growing  moss  excludes  air  and  moisture, 
and  prevents  decomposition." 

Thatching  is  an  art  which  requires  a  good  deal  of  skill  and 
experience ;  and  the  difference  between  a  well-made  roof  and 
one  that  has  been  put  together  by  an  unskillful  hand  is  very 
great,  both  as  regards  efficiency  and  durability.  In  many  parts 
of  Europe  thatching  is  a  regular  trade,  to  which  the  beginner 
serves  an  apprenticeship,  as  to  any  of  the  ordinary  trades. 
The  following  directions,  however,  if  carefully  followed,  will 
enable  the  amateur  to  cover  a  small  building  in  a  manner  that 
is  at  least  respectable : — 

Rye  or  wheat  straw  only  should  be  used,  and  must  be  care- 
fully threshed  with  a  flail  to  leave  the  straws  unbroken.  Bind 
in  bundles,  distributing  the  buts  of  the  straws  equally  to  each 


266  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

end  of  the  bundle.  A  good  roof  can  not  be  made  if  the  straws 
all  lie  one  way.  It  was  always  customary  to  make  the  band 
three  feet  long,  as  this  gave  a  bundle  of  convenient  size  for 
handling.  In  a  dry  time  we  sat  the  bundles  on  end  and  threw 
water  upon  them  a  day  or  two  before  we  used  them. 

The  rafters  are  placed  in  the  usual  way,  and  crossed  by  slats 
two  by  two,  nailed  14  inches  apart,  though  12  inches  will  do 
equally  well. 

Begin  at  the  eaves  and  lay  a  row  of  bundles  across.  Have 
an  iron  needle  18  inches  long  prepared  and  threaded  with 
oakum  8  feet  long.  Fasten  the  thread  to  the  slat  and  pass  the 
needle  through  the  bundle  to  a  boy  stationed  under  the  rafters, 
making  three  to  four  stitches  to  the  bundle.  The  boy  draws 
the  cord  up  tight,  and  passes  the  needle  up  through  again,  but 
on  the  other  side  of  the  slat.  By  this  means  the  first  course  is 
sewed  on.  Succeeding  courses  are  treated  in  the  same  way, 
being  laid  so  as  to  overlap  the  stitching.  Lay  the  heaviest 
row  of  straw  at  the  eaves  to  make  it  look  well.  When  you 
come  to  the  ridge,  fold  the  tops  of  the  straw  over  until  you 
bring  up  the  other  side,  then  get  some  thin  sods,  10  by  14  inches, 
and  H  inches  thick,  and  lay  them  neatly  upon  the  top,  using 
a  small  piece  of  board  to  clap  them  all  slick  and  smooth. 
Boards  put  on  like  ordinary  ridge-boards  will  do  instead  of 
sods,  if  preferred. 

Get  the  point  of  an  old  scythe,  about  18  inches  long;  attach 
a  handle,  so  that  it  will  be  like  a  long  knife,  and  with  it 
"switch  down"  the  roof  all  over,  to  carry  off  all  the  loose 
straws,  and  trim  the  others  off  smooth.  If  well  done,  the  roof 
will  be  as  smooth  as  a  board.  Stretch  a  cord  along  the  eaves 
the  whole  length  of  the  building,  and  trim  off  straight  by  it, 
leaving  the  outside  a  little  lower  than  the  inside,  which  will 
prevent  its  looking  thick  and  heavy. 

A  roof  made  in  this  way  will  not  be  injured  by  wind  and 
rain,  and  it  ought  to  last  from  25  to  30  years  in  the  Middle 
States. 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  26Y 

Tiers- Argent.— This  alloy  is  so  called  because  it  is  sup- 
posed to  consist  of  one  third  silver.  According  to  the  analyses 
of  Dr.  Wiukler  its  composition  is:  copper,  59'06;  silver,  27'56; 
zinc,  957;  nickel,  3"42.  This  alloy  is  used  instead  of  pure 
silver  in  the  manufacture  of  spoons,  forks,  and  other  forms  of 
plate,  for  which  purpose  it  is  extremely  well  adapted,  as  it  is 
harder  than  the  ordinary  alloy  of  silver,  and  its  color  and 
polish  are  as  good.  It  would  form  an  admirable  material  for 
the  cases  of  the  cheap  but  serviceable  watches  that  are  now 
coming  into  such  general  use. 

Veneering. — The  softest  woods  should  be  chosen  for  veneer- 
ing upon, —  such  as  common  cedar  or  yellow  pine.  Perhaps 
the  best  of  all  for  the  purpose  is  "arrow  board,"  twelve  foot 
lengths  of  which  can  be  had  of  perfectly  straight  grain,  and 
without  a  knot.  Of  course  no  one  ever  veneers  over  a  knot. 
Hard  wood  can  be  veneered, — boxwood  with  ivory,for  instance ; 
but  wood  that  will  warp  and  twist,  such  as  nasty  cross-grained 
mahogany,  must  be  avoided. 

The  veneer,  and  the  wood  on  which  it  is  to  be  laid,  must 
both  be  carefully  prepared,  the  former  by  taking  out  all  marks 
of  the  saw  on  both  sides  with  a  fine  toothing  plane,  the  latter 
with  a  coarser  toothing  plane.  If  the  veneer  happens  to  be 
broken  in  doing  this,  it  may  be  repaired  at  once  with  a  bit  of 
stiff  paper  glued  upon  it  on  the  upper  side.  The  veneer  should 
be  cut  rather  larger  than  the  surface  to  be  covered ;  if  much 
twisted  it  may  be  damped  and  placed  under  a  board  and  weight 
over  night.  This  saves  much  trouble;  but  veneers  are  so 
cheap  —  about  two  cents  a  foot  —  that  it  is  not  worth  while 
taking  much  trouble  about  refractory  pieces.  The  wood  to  be 
veneered  must  now  be  sized  with  thin  glue :  the  ordinary  glue- 
pot  will  supply  this  by  dipping  the  brush  first  into  the  glue, 
then  into  the  boilir\g  water  in  the  outer  vessel.  This  size 
must  be  allowed  to  dry  before  the  veneer  is  laid. 

We  will  suppose  now  that  the  veneering  process  is  about  to 
commence.  The  glue  in  good  condition,  and  boiling  hot,  the 
bench  cleared,  a  basin  of  hot  water  with  the  veneering  hammer 


268  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

and  a  sponge  in  it,  a  cloth  or  two,  and  everything  in  such 
position  that  one  will  not  interfere  with  or  be  in  the  way  of 
another. 

First,  damp  with  hot  water  that  side  of  the  veneer  which  is 
not  to  be  glued,  then  glue  the  other  side.  Second,  glue  over 
as  quickly  as  possible  the  wood  itself,  previously  toothed  and 
sized.  Third,  bring  the  veneer  rapidly  to  it,  pressing  it  down 
with  the  outspread  hands,  taking  care  that  the  edges  of  the 
veneer  overlay  a  little  all  round.  Fourth,  grasp  the  veneering 
hammer  close  to  the  pane  (shaking  off  the  hot  water  from  it) 
and  the  handle  pointing  away  from  you;  wriggle  it  about, 
pressing  down  tightly,  and  squeezing  the  glue  from  the  center 
out  at  the  edges.  If  it  is  a  large  piece  of  stuff  which  is  to  be 
veneered,  the  assistance  of  a  hot  flatirou  from  the  kitchen  will 
be  wanted  to  make  the  glue  liquid  again  after  it  has  set;  but 
don't  let  it  dry  the  wood  underneath  it,  or  it  will  burn  the 
wood  and  scorch  the  veneer,  and  ruin  the  work.  Fifth,  having 
got  out  all  the  glue  possible,  search  the  surface  for  blisters, 
which  will  at  once  be  betrayed  by  the  sound  they  give  when 
tapped  with  the  handle  of  the  hammer ;  the  hot  iron  (or  the 
inner  vessel  of  the  glue-pot  itself,  which  often  answers  the 
purpose)  must  be  applied,  and  the  process  with  the  hammer 
repeated. 

When  the  hammer  is  not  in  the  hand  it  should  be  in  the  hot 
water. 

The  whole  may  now  be  sponged  over  with  hot  water,  and 
wiped  as  dry  as  can  be.  And  observe  throughout  the  above 
process  never  have  any  slop  and  wet  about  the  work  that  you 
can  avoid.  Whenever  you  use  the  sponge,  squeeze  it  well 
first.  Damp  and  heat  is  wanted,  not  wet  and  heat.  It  is  a 
good  thing  to  have  the  sponge  in  the  left  hand  nearly  all  the 
time,  ready  to  take  up  any  moisture  or  squeezed-out  glue  from 
the  front  of  the  hammer. 

So  much  for  laying  veneers  with  the  hammer,  which,  though 
a  valuable  tool  for  the  amateur,  is  not  much  used  in  the  best 
cabinet-makers'  shops.    Cauls  are  adopted  instead.    They  are 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  269 

made  of  wood,  the  shape  and  size  of  the  surface  to  be  veneered; 
or,  better  still,  of  rolled  ziuc  plate,  and  being  made  very  hot 
before  a  good  blaze  of  shavings,  they  are  clamped  down  on  the 
work  when  the  veneer  is  got  into  its  place.  They  must  be 
previously  soaped  to  prevent  them  sticking  to  the  veneer. 
The  whole  is  then  left  to  dry  together. 

The  hammer  is  quite  sufficient  for  most  amateurs.  I  have 
laid  veneers  with  it  five  feet  long  by  eighteen  inches  wide 
without  assistance,  and  without  leaving  a  blister.  Cauls,  how- 
ever, are  very  necessary  if  a  double  curved  surface  has  to  be 
veneered,  or  a  concave  surface:  they  need  not  be  used  for  a 
simple  convex  surface.  By  wetting  well  one  side  of  the  veneer 
It  will  curl  up,  and  can  easily  be  laid  on  such  a  sm-face;  but 
it  will  be  well  to  bind  the  whole  round  with  some  soft  string 
to  assist  in  keeping  it  down  while  drying. 

Waterproofing.— A  few  years  ago  a  patent  was  taken  out 
by  Dr.  Stenhouse  for  employing  paraffin  as  a  means  of  render- 
ing leather  waterproof,  as  well  as  the  various  textile  and  felted 
fabrics;  and  since  then  additional  patents  have  been  granted 
for  an  extension  of  and  improvement  on  the  previous  one, 
which  consisted  chiefly  in  combining  the  paraffin  with  various 
proportions  of  drying  oil,  it  having  been  found  that  paraffin 
alone,  especially  when  applied  to  fabrics,  became  to  a  consid- 
erable extent  detached  from  the  fiber  of  the  cloth  after  a  short 
time,  owing  to  its  great  tendency  to  crystallize.  The  presence, 
however,  of  even  a  small  quantity  of  drying  oil  causes  the 
paraffin  to  adhere  much  more  firmly  to  the  texture  of  the  cloth, 
from  the  oil  gradually  becoming  converted  into  a  tenacious 
resin  by  absorption  of  oxygen. 

In  the  application  of  paraffin  for  waterproofing  purposes,  it 
13  first  melted  together  with  the  requisite  quantity  of  drying 
oil,  and  cast  into  blocks.  The  composition  can  then  be  applied 
to  fabrics  by  rubbing  them  over  with  a  block  of  it,  either  cold 
or  gently  warmed,  or  the  mixture  may  be  melted  and  laid  on 
with  a  brush,  the  complete  impregnation  being  effected  by 
subsequently  passing    it    between    hot    rollers.     When    this 


2T0  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

paraffin  mixture  has  been  applied  to  cloth  such  as  that  em- 
ployed for  blinds  or  tents  it  renders  it  very  repellant  to  water, 
although  still  pervious  to  air. 

Cloth  paraffined  in  this  manner  forms  an  excellent  basis  for 
such  articles  as  capes,  tarpaulins,  etc.,  which  require  to  be 
rendered  quite  impervious  by  subsequently  coating  them  with 
drying  oil, —  the  paraffin  in  a  great  measure  preventing  the 
well-known  injurious  influence  of  drying  oil  on  the  fiber  of  the 
cloth.  The  paraffin  mixture  can  also  be  very  advantageously 
applied  to  the  various  kinds  of  leather.  One  of  the  most  con- 
venient ways  of  eft'eeting  this  is  to  coat  the  skins  or  manufac- 
tured articles  — such  as  boots,  shoes,  harness,  pump-buckets, 
etc. —  with  the  melted  composition,  and  then  to  gently  heat 
the  articles  until  it  is  entirely  absorbed.  When  leather  is  im- 
pregnated with  the  mixture  it  is  not  only  rendered  perfectly 
waterproof,  but  also  stronger  and  more  durable.  The  beneficial 
effects  of  this  process  are  peculiarly  observable  in  the  case  of 
boots  and  shoes,  which  it  renders  very  firm  without  destroying 
their  elasticity.  It  therefore  not  only  makes  them  exceedingly 
durable,  but  possesses  an  advantage  over  ordinary  dubbing 
in  not  interfering  with  the  polish  of  these  articles,  which,  on 
the  whole,  it  rather  improves.  The  superiority  of  paraffin  over 
most  other  materials  for  some  kinds  of  waterproofing  consists 
in  its  comparative  cheapness,  in  being  easily  applied,  and  in 
not  materially  altering  the  color  of  fabrics,  which  in  the  case 
of  light  shades  and  white  cloth  is  of  very  considerable  import- 
ance. 

Water-tight  Walls. — The  interior  walls  of  the  gate-houses 
of  the  Croton  Reservoir  in  Central  Park,  New  York,  have  been 
successfully  treated  according  to  the  Sylvester  process,  which 
IS  fully  described  in  a  paper  read  by  Mr.  Dearborn  before  the 
American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  May  4,  1870. 

The  process  consists  in  using  two  washes  or  solutions.  The 
first,  composed  of  three  quarters  of  a  pound  of  castile  soap 
dissolved  in  one  gallon  of  water,  laid  on  at  a  boiling  heat  with 
a  flat  brush.     When  this  has  dried,  twenty-four  hours  later 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  211 

apply  in  like  manner  the  second  wash  of  half  a  pound  of  alum 
dissolved  in  four  gallons  of  water.  The  temperature  of  this 
when  applied  should  be  60  to  70  deg.  Fah.  After  twenty-four 
)xouTS  apply  another  soap  wash,  and  so  on  alternately  until 
four  coats  of  each  have  been  put  on.  Experiments  showed 
that  this  was  sufficient  to  make  the  wall  water-tight  under 
forty  feet  head  of  water. 

At  the  time  of  application  the  walls  had  been  saturated,  and 
the  weather  was  cold.  The  gate-chambers  were  covered  over 
and  heated  thoroughly  with  large  stoves.  The  drying,  clean- 
ing the  walls  with  wire  brushes,  and  applying  the  mixture, 
took  ninety-six  days.  Twenty-seven  tons  of  coal  were  used 
for  the  drying,  and  one  ton  for  heating  the  soap  solution. 
Eighteen  thousand  eight  hundred  and  thirty  square  feet  of 
wall  were  washed  with  four  coats.  The  drying  and  cleaning 
of  the  walls  cost  6^  cents  per  square  foot,  and  the  plant,  ma- 
terials, and  labor  of  applying  the  wash  cost  3f  cents  per  square 
foot. 

Wax-milk. —  This  is  a  partly  saponified  emulsion  of  wax, 
which  has  been  sold  extensively  as  a  furniture  polish.  It  may 
be  prepared  from  ordinary  beeswax,  but  the  cheaper  Japanese 
wax  answers  quite  as  well.  Boil  one  part  of  yellow  soap  and 
three  parts  Japanese  wax  in  twenty-one  parts  of  water,  until 
the  soap  dissolves.  When  cold  it  has  the  consistency  of  salve, 
and  will  keep  in  closed  vessels  as  long  as  desired.  It  can  be 
used  for  polishing  carved  woodwork  and  for  waxing  ballroom 
floors,  as  it  is  cheaper  than  the  solution  of  wax  in  turpentine, 
and  does  not  stick  or  smeL  so  disagreeably  as  the  latter. 

White  Metal. —  This  term  has  been  applied  to  a  large 
number  of  alloys  of  very  varying  composition.  (See  Copper, 
Blanched;  Albata;  Tutania,  and  others.)  An  alloy  which  is 
very  generally  known  in  the  arts  as  "white  metal"  is  com- 
posed of  antimony,  32;  tin,  10;  brass,  8.  Another  "white 
metal"  is  composed  of  lead,  10;  bismuth,  5;  antimony,  4. 

Wood. —  Probably  the  oldest  timber  in  the  world  which  has 
been  subjected  to  the  use  of  man  is  that  which  is  found  in  the 


212  THE  WOEKSHOP  COMPANION. 

ancient  temples  of  Egypt.  It  is  found  in  connection  witli 
stone-work  which  is  known  to  be  at  least  4,000  years  old. 
This  wood,  and  the  only  wood  used  in  the  construction  of  the 
temple,  is  in  the  form  of  ties,  holding  the  end  of  one  stone  to 
another  in  its  upper  surface.  When  two  blocks  were  laid  in 
place,  then  it  appears  that  an  excavation  about  an  inch  deep 
was  made  in  each  block,  into  which  an  hour-glass  shaped  tie 
was  driven.  It  is  therefore  very  difficult  to  force  any  stone 
from  its  position.  The  ties  appear  to  have  been  the  tamarisk,' 
or  chittim-wood,  of  which  the  ark  was  constructed,  a  sacred 
tree  in  ancient  Egypt,  and  now  very  rarely  found  in  the  valley 
of  the  Nile.  Those  dovetailed  ties  are  just  as  sound  now 
as  on  the  day  of  their  insertion.  Although  fuel  is  extremely 
scarce  in  that  country,  those  bits  of  wood  are  not  large  enough 
to  make  it  an  object  with  Arabs  to  heave  off  layer  after 
layer  of  heavy  stone  for  so  small  a  prize.  Had  they  been 
of  bronze,  half  the  old  temples  would  have  been  destroyed 
ages  ago,  so  precious  would  they  have  been  for  various 
purposes. 

Eankine  says  there  are  certain  appearances  characteristic 
of  good  wood,  to  what  class  soever  it  belongs.  In  the  same 
species  of  wood  that  specimen  will  in  general  be  the  strongest 
and  most  durable  which  has  grown  the  slowest,  as  shown  by 
the  narrowness  of  the  annular  rings.  The  cellular  tissue,  as 
seen  in  the  medullary  rays  (when  visible),  should  be  hard  and 
compact.  The  vascular  or  fibrous  tissue  should  adhere  firmly 
together,  and  should  show  no  wooliness  at  a  freshly  cut  sur- 
face, nor  should  it  clog  the  teeth  of  the  saw  with  loose  fibers. 
If  the  wood  is  colored,  darkness  of  color  is  in  general  a  sign  of 
strength  and  durability.  The  freshly  cut  surface  of  the  wood 
should  be  firm  and  shining,  and  should  have  somewhat  of  a 
translucent  appearance.  In  wood  of  a  given  species  the  heavy 
specimens  are  in  general  the  stronger  and  more  lasting. 
Among  the  resinous  woods,  those  having  the  least  resin  in 
their  pores,  and  among  non-resinous  woods  those  which  have 
least  sap  or  gum  in  them,  are  in  general  the  strongest  and 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  213 

most  lasting.  Timber  should  be  free  from  such  blemishes  as 
"clefts,"  or  cracks  radiating  from  the  center;  "cup-shakes," 
or  cracks  which  partially  separate  one  layer  from  another; 
"upsets,"  when  the  fibers  hare  been  crippled  by  compression; 
"windgalls,"  or  wounds  in  a  layer  of  wood,  which  have  been 
covered  and  concealed  by  the  growth  of  subsequent  layers 
over  them;  and  hollow  or  spongy  places  in  the  center  or  else- 
where, indicating  the  commencement  of  decay. 

The  finest  and  most  costly  of  the  veneer-woods  is  French 
walnut, —  a  wood  that  does  not  come  from  France,  but  from 
Persia  and  Asia  Minor.  The  tree  is  crooked  and  dwarfed,  and 
is  solely  valuable  for  the  burls  that  can  be  obtained  from  it. 
These  are  large  tough  excrescences,  growing  upon  the  trunk, 
III  this  the  grain  is  twisted  into  the  most  singular  and  com- 
plicated figures.  The  intricacy  of  these  figures,  combined 
with  their  symmetry,  is  one  of  the  elements  that  determine 
the  value  of  the  burl.  Color  and  soundness  are  other  elements 
of  value,  which  varies  very  widely.  Burls  worth  from  $500  to 
$1000  each  are  not  rare ;  and  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1878 
one  burl  weighing  2,200  pounds  was  sold  for  $5,000,  or  upwards 
of  $2  a  pound. 

Polishing  with  iJharcoal. —  The  following  method  of  polish- 
ing wood  with  charcoal  is  now  much  used  by  French  cabinet- 
makers, and  produces  that  well-known  beautiful  dead  black 
color,  with  sharp  clear  edges  and  a  smooth  surface,  which  give 
the  wood  the  appearance  of  ebony.  When  articles  of  furniture 
finished  in  this  way  are  viewed  side  by  side  with  furniture 
rendered  black  by  paint  and  varnish,  the  difference  is  so 
sensible  that  the  considerable  margin  of  price  between  the 
two  kinds  explains  itself  without  need  of  any  commentary. 
The  operations  are  much  longer  and  much  more  minute  in 
charcoal  polishing,  which  respects  every  detail  of  the  carving, 
while  paint  and  varnish  would  clog  up  the  holes  and  widen 
the  ridges.  Only  carefully  selected  woods,  of  a  close  and  com- 
pact grain,  are  employed.  These  are  covered  with  a  coat  of 
extract  of  logwood  and  nuitgalls  dissolved  in  water ;  and  almoso 


274  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

immediately  afterward  with  another  coat  composed  chiefly  of 
sulphate  of  iron,  or  green  vitriol,  dissolved  in  water.  The  two 
compositions  in  blending  penetrate  the  wood  and  give  it  an 
indelible  tinge,  and  at  the  same  time  render  it  impervious  to 
the  attacks  of  insects. 

When  these  two  coats  are  sufficiently  dry  the  surface  of  the 
wood  is  first  rubbed  with  a  very  hard  brush  of  scouring  grass, 
and  then  with  charcoal  of  substances  as  light  and  friable  as 
possible,  because  if  a  single  hard  grain  remained  in  the  char- 
coal this  alone  would  scratch  the  surface,  which  should  be 
rendered  perfectly  smooth.  The  flat  parts  are  rubbed  with 
natural  stick  charcoal,  the  indented  poi-tions  and  crevices  with 
charcoal  powder.  At  once,  almost  simultaneously,  and  alter- 
nately with  the  charcoal,  the  workman  also  rubs  the  piece  of 
furniture  with  flannel  soaked  in  linseed-oil  and  the  essence  of 
turpentine.  These  pouncings,  repeated  several  times,  cause 
the  charcoal  powder  and  the  oil  to  penetrate  into  the  wood, 
giving  the  article  of  furniture  a  beautiful  color  and  perfect 
polish,  which  has  none  of  the  flaws  of  ordinary  varnish.  Black 
wood,  polished  with  charcoal,  is  coming  day  by  day  to  be  in 
greater  demand.  It  is  most  serviceable ;  it  does  not  tarnish 
like  gilding,  nor  grow  yellow  like  white  wood ;  and  in  furnish- 
ing a  drawing-room  it  agrees  very  happily  with  gilt  bi'onzes 
and  rich  stuffs.  In  the  dining-room,  too,  it  is  thoroughly  in 
its  place  to  show  off  the  plate  to  the  greatest  advantage ;  and 
in  the  library  it  supplies  a  capital  framework  for  handsomelj 
bound  books. 

Stains  for  Wood.— heo,  of  Bensheim,  Germany,  recommends 
the  following  stains  for  oak,  pine,  beech,  poplar,  etc. 

1.  Yellow  Stain. —  Wash  over  with  a  hot,  concentrated  solu- 
tion of  picric  acid,  and  when  dry,  polish  the  wood. 

2.  Ebony  Black. —  Wash  with  a  concentrated  aqueous  solu- 
tion of  extract  of  logwood  several  times.  Then  with  a  solution 
of  acetate  of  iron  of  14  deg.  Baum^,  which  is  repeated  until  a 
deep  black  is  produced. 

3.  Gray.—  One  part  of  nitrate  of  silver  dissolved  in  50  parts 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  275 

of  distilled  water.  Wash  over  twice;  then  with  hydrochloric 
acid,  and  afterwards  with  water  of  ammonia.  The  wood  is 
allowed  to  dry  in  the  dark,  and  is  then  finished  in  oil  and 
polished. 

4.  Light  Walnut. —  Dissolve  one  part  of  permanganate  of 
potassium  in  30  parts  of  pure  water,  and  apply  twice  in  suc- 
cession ;  and  after  an  interval  of  five  minutes  wash  with  clean 
water,  and  when  dry  oil  and  polish. 

5.  Darlc  Walnut. —  Same  as  for  light  walnut;  but  after  the 
washing  with  water,  the  darker  veins  are  made  more  prom- 
inent with  a  solution  of  acetate  of  iron. 

6.  Dark  Mahogany. — Introduce  into  a  hottle  15  gi'ains  alkanet 
root,  30  grains  aloes,  30  grains  powdered  dragon's  blood,  and 
500  grains  95  per  cent  alcohol,  closing  the  mouth  of  the  bottle 
with  a  piece  of  bladder,  keeping  it  in  a  warm  place  for  three 
or  four  days,  with  occasional  shaking;  then  filtering  the  liquid. 
The  wood  is  first  mordanted  with  nitric  acid ;  and  when  dry 
washed  with  the  stain  once  or  oftener,  according  to  the  de- 
sired sliade;  then  the  wood  being  dried,  oiled,  and  polished. 

7.  Light  Mahogany. —  Same  as  dark  mahogany,  but  the  stain 
being  only  applied  once.  The  veins  of  true  mahogany  may  be 
imitated  by  the  use  of  acetate  of  iron  skillfully  applied. 

A  favorite  recipe  for  staining  wood  a  brilliant  yellow-brown 
is  nitric  acid.  When  strong  nitric  acid  is  rubbed  over  any  of 
the  light-colored  woods  it  at  once  produces  a  very  rich  color; 
and  after  washing  the  wood  with  water,  and  drying  it,  and 
oiling  it  with  linseed-oil,  the  surface  presents  such  a  hand- 
some appearance  that  the  process  has  been  strongly  recom- 
mended, and  the  recipe  will  be  found  in  many  works  on 
angling  and  recommended  for  fishing-rods.  Where  mere  ap- 
pearance is  all  that  is  needed,  the  process  is  a  very  good  one ; 
but  where,  as  in  fishing-rods,  it  is  desirable  to  retain  the  full 
strength  and  elasticity  of  the  material,  nitric  acid  should  never 
be  used.  Any  one  can  prove,  by  simple  and  easy  experiments, 
that  the  strength  of  a  rod  is  greatly  reduced  by  the  action  of 
the  acid. 


276  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

Zinc. —  By  means  of  the  following  simple  process,  recom- 
mended by  Bottger,  a  brilliant  coating  of  zinc  may  be  deposited 
on  brass  or  copper :  Boil  a  large  excess  of  so-called  zinc-dust, 
some  time,  with  a  concentrated  solution  of  caustic  soda,  or 
potash,  and  place  the  copper  or  brass  articles  to  be  coated  in 
the  boiling  liquid.  By  continuing  the  heating,  after  a  few 
minutes  a  beautiful  mirror-like  film  of  zinc  will  form  upon 
them  by  the  deposition  of  the  alkaline  solution,  in  consequence 
of  their  electro-negative  character  in  combination  with  the 
zinc.  It  is  suggested  that  the  process  is  applicable  to  the 
preparation  of  disks  for  dry-piles,  and  also  for  forming  a  layer 
of  tombac,  by  heat  ing  a  copper  article  thus  coated,  carefully, 
to  about  248  to  284  deg.  (best  under  olive-oil),  when  the  '"' 
will  unite  with  tlie  eopner  support  to  form  a  gold-tinted  tombac, 
and  tlie  article  need  only  be  quickly  cooled  in  water,  or  some 
other  suitable  liquid,  as  soon  as  the  desired  color  is  apparent. 

Coloring  Zinc. —  A  chemical  process  for  covei'ing  zinc  with 
colored  coatings  has  lately  been  described  by  Dr.  L.  Stille. 
The  articles  of  zinc  are  first  brightened  by  scouring  with  quartz 
sand,  moistened  with  dilute  muriatic  acid,  putting  them  quickly 
in  water,  and  then  carefully  wiping  them  drj'  with  white  blot- 
ting-paper. To  insure  success,  however,  it  is  necessary  to 
employ  zinc  as  free  as  possible  from  lead,  and  to  have  it  as 
bright  as  a  mirror.  When  these  conditions  are  fulfilled,  the 
metal  may  be  coated  with  a  variety  of  beautiful  colors  by 
immersion  in  a  solution  of  alkaline  tartrate  of  copper  for  a 
shorter  or  longer  interval  of  time,  depending  on  the  color  that 
is  desired. 

Black  Color  for  Zinc. —  Clean  the  surface  carefully  with  fine 
sand  or  emery  and  sulphuric  acid,  and  immerse  for  an  instant 
in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  nickel  and  ammonia, — 4  parts  in 
40  parts  of  water  acidulated  with  1  part  of  sulphuric  acid. 
Wash  and  dry.  When  burnished,  this  takes  a  fine  bronze 
color. 


INDEX 


Abyssinian  gold,  o. 

Anidents,  general  rule  in  case  of,  9. 

Adds,  stains  of,  to  remove,  130. 

Adamantine,  159. 

Adhesion  of  nails,  242. 

Adhesive  paper,  loi. 

Air,  weight  of,  33. 

Alabaster, 

to  work,  II. 

to  polish,  II. 

to  clean,  11. 

cement  for,  12. 
Albata,  composition  of,  13. 
Alcohol  for  making  varnish,  12. 

as  a  stimulant  in  case  of  accident, 
10. 
All-nights,  236. 
Alloy  for  filling  holes  in  cast  iron,  13. 

for  uniting  iron, steel  and  brass,i3. 

general  rules  for  making,  12. 
Aluminium,  oronze,  13. 

silver,   13. 
Amalgam,  Boettger's,  13. 

copper,  13. 

for  silvering  globes,  etc.,  13. 

for  electrical  machines,  13. 

silver,  for  mirrors,  98. 
Amber,  working  and  polishing,  15. 

cement  for,  16. 

imitation,  16. 

solvents  for,  119. 
Anacharis  alsinastrum,  171. 
Aniline  inks,  67. 

stains,  to  remove,  130. 
Annealing  copper,  brass,  etc.,  16. 

steel,  133. 
Anti-attrition  lubricator,  go. 

metal,  Babbitt's,  14. 
Anti-attrition  metal,  185. 
Anti-friction  metals,  Belgian,  14. 

cheap,  14. 
Antique  bronze,  26. 
Antiseptic  preparations,  17. 
Aquarium,  160. 
Aquarium  cement,  29. 
Armenian  cement,  29. 
Arsenic,  antidote  for,  iii. 
Arsenical  soap,  17. 

powder,  17. 
Aurum  Musivum,  179. 
Authorship,  180. 
Axle  grease.  Booth's,  90. 
Uabbitt  metal,  185. 

how  to  make  and  apply,  14. 


Balloon.  187. 

Balls  for  removing  grease,  131. 

Barometer  paper,  102. 

Basketware,  varnish  for,  139. 

Bast,  189. 

Batteries,  voltaic,  145. 

zincs  for,  146. 

connections  for,  145. 
Bedbugs,  189. 
Beeswax,  to  bleach,  17. 
Belgian  antifriction  metals,  14. 
Belting,  leather,  cement  for,  35. 
Bengal  lights,  84. 
Birch-bark,  oil  of,  iga. 
Birdlime,  194. 
Blackboards,  to  make,  18. 

crayons  for,  40. 
Black,  Brunswick,  195. 
Black  color  for  zinc,  276. 
Black  Flux,  213. 
Bladders,  19s. 
Bladder  as  a  lute,  224. 
Blazing  oS  steel  springs,  134. 
Bleaching  by  means  ofsulphur,  137. 

ivory,  78. 

shellac,  122. 

skeleton  leaves,  84. 
Bleaching  liquid,  251. 
Bleaching  sponges,  262. 
Blue  color,  to  remove  from  iron  and 

steel,  76. 
Blue  light,  84,  86. 
Bluing,  of  steel,  136. 
Booth's  axle  grease,  90. 
Boron  Diamond,  159. 
Bottle  Lute,  225. 
Boxes,  metal  for  lining,  14. 
Brass,  18. 

to  finish,  19. 

to  color  and  varnish,  19. 

to  bronze,  19,  23, 

to  blacken,  20. 

to  whiten,  21. 

to  deposit  by  electricity,  21. 

to  coat  with  copper,  22. 

to  coat  with  silver,  126. 

to  clean,  22. 

to  lacquer,  23. 
Brazing,  22. 

Breathing  of  Aquatic  Animals,  161. 
Brick,  oil  of,  246. 
Brightening  iron,  76. 
Brilliants,  Fahlun,  212. 
British  plate,  composition  of,  13. 


278 


INDEX. 


Broaches,  Diamond,  aog. 
Bronze,  aluminium,  13. 
Bronze  for  brass,  25. 

antique,  36,  105. 
Bronzing,  25. 
Bronzing  liquid.  26, 
Bronzing  Plaster  Casts,  256. 
Bronzing  wood, leather, paper, etc. ,26. 
Browning  gun  barrels,  60. 
Browning  mixture  for  gun  barrels,  60. 
Bruises  in  furniture,  215. 
Brunswick  Black,  195. 
Buckland's  cement,  29. 
Buffing  metals,  etc.,  94, 95. 
Burls  for  Veneer,  273. 
Burnishing  metals,  94. 
Burns,  cure  for,  27. 
Caddis-worm,  173, 
Cadmium,  197. 
Calcimine,  149. 
Cameos,  197. 

Camphor,  tor  moths,  221. 
Canvas,  to  make  waterproof,  147. 

metallic  soap,  for,  148. 
Cap  cement,  Faraday's,  31. 
Carmine   ink,    French    process    for 

making,  67. 
Carpets,  to  clean,  220. 
Carved  work,  care  of,  ai6. 
Casehardening,  igS. 
Casehardening  iron,  73. 
Casein  and  soluble  glass  cement,  30. 
Casein  Mucilage,  30. 
Cast  steel — see  steel. 
Castings  and  Patterns,  203. 
Casts,  Sulphur,  263. 
Catgut,  how  to  make,  37. 
Cats,  to  cure  skins  of,  129. 
Cauls  for  Veneering,  268. 
Cement  for  alabaster,  12. 
Cements  for  Aquaria,  165. 
Cement,  Armenia,  29. 

Buckland's,  29. 

cheese,  30. 

Chinese  (schio-liao),  30. 

Faraday's  cap,  31. 

electrical,  31. 

for  glass,  earthenware,  etc.,  31. 

gutta  percha,  33. 

iron,  for  pipes,  etc.,  33. 

Japanese.  34. 

for  kerosene  oil  lamps,  34, 

labels,  34. 

for  uniting  leather  and  metal,  35. 

for  leather  belting,  35. 

litharge  and  glycerine,  35. 

for  attaching  metal  to  glass,  36. 

Paris,  for  shells,  etc.,  36. 

porcelain,  37. 


Cement,  soft,  37. 

soluble  glass,  37. 

Sorel's,  38. 

steam  boiler,  38. 

transparent,  38. 

turner's,  38. 

Wollaston's,  38. 

sulphur,  138. 
Cements,  general  rule  for  using,  28. 
Cement,  Lime,  224. 
Cement,  Rubber,  224. 
Cement,  Soft,  225. 
Cement,  Water-glass,  225. 
Chairs,  to  repair,  220. 
Chalk,  for  polishing,  114. 
Chamois,  to  clean,  206. 
Charcoal,  Polishing  Wood  with,  273, 
Chatham  light,  89. 
Cheese,  cement,  30. 
Chinese  cement,  30. 

glue,  30. 
Chlorate  of  potassa,  caution,  87. 
Christison's  Flux,  213. 
Clay  Lute,  226. 
Clay  Retorts,  Lute  for,  227. 
Cleaning  engravings,  etc.,  105. 

glass,  57. 

glass  for  mirrors,  97. 

looking  glasses,  99. 

ivory,  78. 

marble,  91. 

silver,  125. 
Cliche  metal,  15. 
Cloth,  to  make  waterproof,  147. 
Clothes  on  fire,  what  to  do,  48. 
Coating  for  glass  vessels,  3. 
Cock  metal,  13. 

Cofiee  as  a  stimulant  in  case  of  ac- 
cident, 10. 
Cold  process  for  zincing  iron,  75. 

tinning  iron,  75. 
Color  of  tempered  steel,  134. 
Coloring  zinc,  276. 
Colors,  to  make  adhere,  251. 
Connections  for  voltaic  batteries,  145. 
Copal,  solvents  for,  119. 
Copper,  38. 

amalgam,  how  to  make,  13. 

to  polish,  38. 

to  weld,  39. 
Coppering  iron  or  steel,  39. 
Coral,  artificial,  40. 
Cork,  to  cut,  40. 

to  make  airtight,  40. 
Cornish  Reducing  Flux,  213. 
Corrosive  Sublimate,  antidote  for,  112 
Court-plaster,  206. 
Crayfish,  173. 
Crayons,  for  blackboards,  40. 


INDEX. 


2t9 


Crayons,  to  preserve,  41. 

Cream,  Painters',  350. 

Creases,  to  take  out  of  engravings, 

etc.,  I03. 
Crocus  martis,  for  polishing,  115. 
Crucibles,  207. 
Crude  Flux,  213. 

Crustaceans,  for  the  Aquarium,  173. 
Curing  and  tanning  skins,  128. 
Curling  metal  surfaces,  41. 
Cuticle,  liquid,  41. 
Dammar,  solvents  for,  119. 
Demons,  tableaux  light  for,  86. 
Dials,  painting  hours  on,  loi. 
Diamond,  Boron,  159. 
Diamond-dust  for  drilling  glass,  56. 
Diamond-dust  for  strops,  260. 
Diamond  Mills,  209. 
Disinfecting  by  sulphur  vapors,  137. 

by  pastils,  etc.,  50. 
Drawing  paper,  size  for,  127. 

to  amount,  102. 
Dresses,  how  to  make  fire-proof,  48. 
Drilling  glass,  55. 
Dubbing,  209. 
Dumoulin's  liquid  glue,  32. 
Ebonizing,  210. 
Ebony,  210. 
Ebony,  imitation,  156. 
Ebony,  black  stain  for  wood,  273. 
Eelskin,  for  laces,  211. 
Electrical  amalgam,  13. 

Boettger's,  13. 
Electrical  cement,  31. 
Electrum,  composition  of,  13. 
Elemi,  solvents  for,  119. 
Elutriation,  how  to  perform,  113. 
Enamel,  Luminous,  248. 
Engravings,  to  clean,  219. 
Engravings,  to  take  creases  out  of,  102 

to  take  water  stains  out  of,  105. 
Engravings,  to  transfer,  211. 
Eraser  for  ink,  70. 
Etching  copper,  42. 

varnish,  42. 

acid  for,  42. 

steel,  liquid  for,  43. 

glass,  44. 
Eye,  accidents  to,  44. 

to  remove  particles  from,  45. 

lime  in,  46. 
Face,  to  take  cast  of,  254. 
Factitious  Oil  of  Brick,  246, 
Fahlun  Brilliants,  212. 
Faraday's  cap  cement,  31, 
Fat  Lute,  223. 
Fazie  Metal,  212. 
Feeding  Fish,  178. 
Files  of  Diamond,  309. 


Finish,  Porcelain,  256. 
Fire-balloons,  188. 
Fire-proof  dresses,  48. 
Fire-clothes  on,  48. 
Fires,  to  prevent,  4G. 

what  to  do  in  case  of,  47. 
Fish  for  Aquarium,  174. 
Floor  of  Aquarium,  168. 
Fluxes,  212. 
Fluxes  for  solders,  24. 
Fly  papers,  to  make,  49. 
Forging  iron,  72. 

Freezing  mixtures,  various  kinds,  50. 
Freezing,  to  prevent  ink  from,  69. 
French  polish,  152. 
Fresenius  Flux,  213. 
Fresh-water  Aquarium,  163. 
Fruit  stains,  to  remove,  130. 
Fuller's  earth  for  scouring,  131. 
Fumigating  pastils  how  to  make  and 

use,  50. 
Furniture,  care  of,  213. 
Furs,  skins,  curing,  128. 
Fusible  Alloy,  197. 
Gas-holders,  Bladders  for,  196. 
German  Paste,  227. 
Ghosts,  tableaux  light  for,  86. 
Gilded  ware,  cleaning,  80. 
Gilding  metals,  best  methods,  51. 

with  gold  leaf,  52. 

wood,  54. 

steel,  54. 
Gimp,  care  of,  216. 
Glass,  soluble,  cement,  30, 

cement,  31. 

earthenware,  etc.,  cement  for,  31. 

working,  54. 

cutting,  54. 

cutting  without  a  diamond,  ss- 

drilling,  53.  ... 

how  to  turn  and  bore  in  a  lathe,  55. 

stoppers,  fitting,  56. 

stojjpers.to  remove.when  tight,  56 

to  powder,  ^7. 

ground,  to  imitate,  57. 

vessels,  to  cleanse,  57. 

paper,  103. 

pajser,  waterproof,  103. 
Glass  Vessels,  coating  for,  226, 
Glassware,  to  pack,  59. 
Glazier's  Putty,  233,  256. 
Globes  for  Aquaria,  164. 
Glue,  how  to  choose,  31. 

how  to  prepare,  32. 

Chinese,  30. 

liquid,  32. 

marine,  35. 

mouth,  33. 

portable,  33. 


280 


INDEX. 


Glue,  portable,  33. 
Gold,  Abyssinian,  g. 
gilding  with,  5a. 
ink,  68. 
lacquer,  81. 

size,  preparation  of,  127, 
Goldtish,  175. 
Gold,  Mosaic,  179. 
Grass,  dried,  to  stain,  59. 
Gravel  for  Aquarium,  169. 
Gray  stain  for  wood,  174. 
Grease  stains,  to  remove,  130. 
Greasing  nails,  245. 
Green  light,  85,  86. 
Ground  glass,  to  imitate,  57. 
Gumption  for  Artists.  227. 
Guns,  to  improve  the  shooting  of,  59. 
to  keep  barrels  from  rusting,  60. 
to  brown  the  barrels  of,  60. 
varnish  for  barrels,  61. 
Gut,  silkworm,  227. 
Gutta-percha,  227. 
Gutta-percha  cement,  33. 
Gypsum,  108. 
Gypsum,  to  harden,  255. 
Hammer,  laying  veneers  with,  267. 
Handles  of  knives  to  fasten,  62. 
Hands,  care  of  the,  230. 
Hardening  copper,  brass,  etc.,  16. 

steel,  133. 
Hard  putty,  257. 
Hard  solder,  23. 
Harness,  care  of,  an. 
Harness,  polish  for,  232. 
Heat  used  in  forging  iron,  72. 
Hygrometric  or  barometer  paper,  102. 
Icehouses,  233. 
Ice,  packing.  235. 
Indelible  aniline  ink,  68. 

Indian  ink,  68. 
Indestructible  ink,  69. 
Indian  ink,  how  to  choose,  63. 
ink,  different  kinds  of,  62. 

rules  for  selecting  and  using,  63. 

black,  recipe  for,  66. 

Runge''s  black  ink,  66. 

blue  ink,  66. 

carmine  ink,  French  process,  67. 

red  ink,  67. 

aniline  inks,  general  formula,  67. 

aniline  ink,  violet,  67. 

aniline  ink,  blue,  67. 

aniline  inks,  aqueous  solutions,  67 

gold,  68. 

silver,  68. 

marking  ink  for  linen,  68. 

indelible  aniline,  68. 

indelible  Indian,  68. 

indestructible,  69. 


Ink,  that  will  not  freeze,  6g. 

sympathetic  or  secret,  69. 

eraser,  70. 

pencils,  106. 

stains,  to  remove  from  silver,  125. 

stains,  to  remove,  131. 
Inks  for  rubber  stamps  and  stencils,7o 
Inkstains,  to  remove,  216. 
Inlaying,  simple  method  of,  71. 

imitation,  71. 
Insects  for  Aquarium,  171. 
Insect  powder,  192. 
Insects,  to  destroy,  220. 
Iron  cement  for  joints,  33. 

forging,  difEerent  heats  employed 
for,  72. 

welding,  72. 

casehardening,  73. 

rust,  to  prevent,  74. 

zincing,  74. 

cold  process  for  zincing,  75. 

tinning,  75. 

tinning  in  the  cold,  75. 

brightening,  76. 

to  remove  blue  color  from,  76. 

mould,  to  remove,  131. 

and  tin,  alloys  of,  139. 
Iron,  paint  for,  249. 
Iron  retorts,  lute  for,  227. 
Iron,  to  caseharden,  198. 
Ivory,  character  of  as  regards  work, 
76. 

working  and  polishing,  methods 

ior,  77-  ,       .  „ 

bleaching  and  cleaning,  78. 
Ivy,  poisoning  with,  remedy,  113. 
Japanese  cement,  34. 
Javelle  water,  79. 
Jewelry,  cleaning,  80. 
Kalsomine,  149. 

Kerosene  oil  lamps,  cement  for,  34. 
Labels,  cement  for,  34. 
Lac,  different  kinds  of,  121. 
Lacquer,  Method  of  using,  81. 

deep  gold.  82. 

bright  gold,  82. 

pale  gold,  82. 

used  by  A.  Ross,  82. 
Lacquer,  preservation  of,  83. 
Laundry  gloss,  83. 
Leather  belting,  cement  for,  35. 
Leather  for  strops,  259. 
Leather,  Russian,  192. 
Leather,  to  make  waterproof,  147, 
Leaves,  skeleton,  83. 
Lights,  signal  and  colored,  84. 

Bengal,  84. 

blue,  84,  86. 

red,  8s,  86. 


INDEX. 


281 


Lights,  white,  85,  86. 
crimson  fire,  85. 

?;reen,  85,  86. 
or  indoor  illumination,  85. 

phosphorous,  88. 

photographic,  88. 

Chatham,  89. 
Lime  cement,  224. 
Lining  pictures,  252. 
Litharge  and  glycerine  cement,  35. 
Looking  glasses,  care  of,  gg. 

how  to  clean,  99. 
Lubricators,  rules  for  selecting,  8g. 

plumbago,  go. 

anti-attrition,  90. 

fine  lubricating  oil,  90. 

Booth's  axel  grease,  90. 
Luminous  enamel,  248. 
Luminous  paint,  247. 
Lutes,  222. 

Magic  lantern  pictures,  238. 
Magnesium  light,  85. 
Mahogany  stain  for  wood,  275. 
Mahogany,  to  improve,  155. 

artificial,  155. 
Manuscript,  am't  of  matter  in,  183. 
Maple,  to  whiten,  155. 
Maps,  varnish  for,  141. 
Marble,  composition  of,  90. 

method  of  working,  91. 

method  of  polishing,  92. 

substances  which  injure  it,  91. 

to  clean,  91. 

sculpture,  how  finished,  93. 
Marble  table-tops,  317. 
Marine  aquarium,  163. 
Marine  glue,  35. 
Marking  ink,  68. 
Mastic,  solrents  for,  119. 
Mats,  shine  cured  for,  128. 
Matrass,  179. 

Mercury,  bichloride  or  corrosive  sub- 
limate, 112. 
Metal,  anti-attrition,  185. 

anti-friction,  14. 

Babbitt,  14,  185. 

fusible,  15. 
Metal,  Spence's,  191. 
Metal,  to  attach  to  glass,  36. 
Metallic  soap  for  canvas,  148. 
Metals,  to  polish,  94,  95,  96. 
Metals,  bright,  painting,  loi. 
Methylated  spirit,  238. 
Mexican  onyx,  90. 
Mildew,  to  remove,  131. 
Mirrors,  to  make,  96. 

for  optical  purposes,  96. 

silver  amalgam  for,  98, 

care  of,  gg. 


Mohr's  lute,  227. 

Moiree  metallique,  239. 

Mollusks  for  Aquarium,  171. 

Mono-chromatic  light,  86. 

Mortars  for  light,  236. 

Morveau's  flux,  213. 

Moths  to  destroy,  220. 

Moulds  made  of  sulphur,  138. 

Mouth  glue,  33. 

Moxon's  recipe  for  casehardening,i99. 

Mucilage,  casein,  30. 

Murderers,  tableaux,  light  for,  86. 

Nails,  241. 

Nets  for  fishing,  175, 

Newton's  fusible  metal,  15. 

Nickel,  characters  of,  gg. 

to  deposit  without  battery,  100. 
Night-lights,  236. 
Nine  oils,  246. 

Nitric  acid  stain  for  wood,  275. 
Noise,  prevention  of  100. 
Nonsensical  complication,  201. 
Novargent,  126. 
Oak,  to  stain,  157. 

to  darken,  157. 
Oil,  fine,  for  lubricating,  90. 
Oil  for  harness,  232. 
Oil-gas  oil,  247. 
Oil  of  birch-bark,  192. 
Oil  of  brick,  246. 
Oil  of  brick,  factitious,  246. 
Oil,  Rangoon,  258. 
Oils,  nine,  246. 

Oilstone  powder  for  polishing,  116. 
Onion's  fusible  metal,  15. 
Opaque  sides  for  tanks,  165. 
Opium  poisoning,  remedy  for,  112. 
Oriental  alabaster,  11. 
Origin  of  names  of  nails,  241. 
Oxidized  silver,  123. 
Packing  for  icehouses,  234. 
Paint  for  iron,  249. 
Paint  luminous,  247. 
Paint  to  remove,  132,  217. 
Painters'  cream,  250. 
Painting  bright  metals,  loi. 
Painting  metal  dials,  loi. 
Paintings,  repairing,  251. 
Paper  for  manuscript,  181. 
Paper,  various  uses  of,  loi. 

adhesive,  loi. 

barometer,  102. 

creases,  to  take  out  of,  102. 

drawing,  to  mount,  102. 

glass  paper,  103. 

to  prepare  for  varnishing,  103. 

pollen  powder  or  paper  powder, 
104. 

tracing,  104. 


282 


INDEX. 


Paper,  transfer,  104. 

to  remove  water  stains  from,  105. 

waxed,  105. 

for  pillows,  107. 

size  for,  127. 
Paraffined  cloth,  270. 
Paris  cement  for  shells,  etc.,  36. 
Paris  green,  antidote  for,  m. 
Paris  plaster  of,  224. 
Paste  for  cloth,  221. 
Paste,  German,  227. 
Paste,  recipes  for,  36. 
Pastils,  fumigating,  50. 
Patina  or  artificial  bronze,  105. 
Patterns  and  castings,  203. 
Patterns,  to  trace,  105. 
Pencil  marks,  to  fix,  106. 
Pencils,  ink,  to  make,  106. 
Peroxide  of  iron  for  polishing,  116. 
Pewter,  15,  107. 

hardened,  107. 

for  caps  and  polishing  tools,  107. 
Phosporous  light,  88. 
Phosporous  as  poison,  antidote,  112. 
Photographic  light,  88. 
Pictures  for  magic  lanterns,  238. 
Pictures,  to  clean,  218. 
Pillows  for  sick  room,  107. 
Pith  for  cleaning  pinions,  253. 
Plants,  action  on  water,  151. 
Plants  for  Aquarium,  170. 
Plaster  casts,  253. 
Plaster  of  Paris,  224. 

preparation  of,  io8. 

to  harden,  108. 

to  cast,  108. 
Plaster-of-Paris  and  Paraffine,  255. 
Plate  renovator,  126. 
Plating  without  battery,  126. 

nickel,  loo- 
Platinum,  solder  for,  25. 
Plumbago  as  a  lubricator,  90. 
Poison  for  bedbugs,  192. 
Poisons,  caution  in  regard  to,  109. 
Poisons,  acids,  no. 

oxalic  acid,  iio. 

Prussic  acid,  in. 

arsenic  and  Paris  green,  iii. 

corrosive  sublimate,  112. 

phosphorous,  112. 

opium,  112. 

strychnine,  113. 

stings,  113. 
Polish  for  floors,  221. 
Polishing  marble,  217. 
Polishing  smoothing  irons,  83. 

metals,  94. 

powders,  selection  of,  113. 

clutriation  of,  113. 


Polishing,  chalk  or  whiting,  114. 

prepared  chalk,  114. 

crocus  or  rouge,  115. 

Andrew   Ross's  mode  of  prepar- 
ing, 116. 

oilstone  powder,  116. 

pumice-stone  powder,  116. 

putty  powder,  117. 

Vienna  lime,  n8. 
Polishing  powder.  Lord  Ross's  mode 

of  preparing,  ti6. 
Polishing  wood,  151. 

in  the  lathe,  153. 
Polishing  wood  with  charcoal,  273. 
Pollen  powder  or  paper,  104. 
Porcelain  cement,  37. 
Porcelain  finish,  256. 
Powders  for  casehardening,  203. 
Powders,  polishing,  113. 
Powder  for  strops,  259. 
Powder,  insect,  192. 
Printing  in  gold,  silver  and  bronze, 52 
Prussic  acid,  antidote  for,  m. 
Pumice-stone  powder,  117. 
Putty,  256. 

Putty  powder  for  polishing,  117. 
Putty,  glaziers,  223,  256. 
Putty,  hard,  257. 
Putty,  soft,  258. 
Putty,  to  soften,  258. 
Putty,  water-glass,  258. 
Quartz  for  Razor-strops,  260. 
Queen's  metal,  composition  of,  15. 
Rabbits,  to  cure  skins  of,  129. 
Rangoon  oil,  258. 
Ratholes,  to  strop,  356. 
Razor-strops,  258. 
Red  ink,  67. 
Red  light,  85,  86. 
Repair,  furniture,  214. 
Reptiles  for  Aquarium,  174. 
Resins,  characters  of,  119. 
Retorts,  lute  for,  227. 
Rockwork  for  Aquaria,  166. 
Roofs,  Thatched,  265. 
Rosewood,  imitation,  157. 
Ross,  Andrew,  lacquer  used  by,  82. 

method   of  preparing  rouge   for 
polishing,  115. 

method  of  preparing  putty  pow- 
der, 118. 
Ross,    Lord,   method    of    preparing 

rouge  for  polishing,  115. 
Rouge  for  polishing,  115. 
Rubber  cement,  224. 
Russian  leather,  192. 
Rust  and  corrosion  of  iron,  to  pre- 
vent, 74. 
Rust,  effect  of,  244. 


INDEX. 


283 


Sailcloth,    to    make    impervious    to 

water,  147. 
Sandarach,  solvents  for,  itg. 
Saws,  how  to  put  in  order,  120. 
Saws,  tempering,  135.! 
Scavengers,  Aquarium,  162. 
Sea-shells  in  Aquaria,  166. 
Sea-water,  artificial,  163. 
Secret  writing,  ink  for,  69. 
Seed  lac.  121. 

Sheep  skins  for  mats,  curing  of,  118. 
Shellac,  character^of,  121. 

adulteration  of,  121. 

solvents  for,  119,  121. 

clarifying  solution  of,  122. 

bleaching,  122. 

varnish,  142. 
Shrimp,  fresh-water,  173. 
Shrinkage  of  castings,  205. 
Sieves,  very  fine,  to  make,  121. 
Silkworm  gut,  227. 
Silver,  aluminium,  13. 

characters  of,  ua. 

for  solder,  23. 

ink,  68. 

amalgam  for  mirrors,  98, 

how  hardened,  122. 

oxidized,  123. 

to  clean,  125. 

to  imitate  old,  124. 

to  remove  ink  stains  from,  125. 

to  dissolve  off  plated  ware,  125. 

to  work  and  polish,  122. 

nitrate,  to  remove  stains  of,  132. 
Silvering  mirrors,  amalgam  for,  96. 

inside  of  gloves,  etc.,  13. 

leather,  etc.,  126. 

powder,  126. 

solution,  127. 

amalgam  for  metals,  127, 
Silversmith's  work,  how  finished,  122. 
Size,  glue,  how  to  make,  127. 

for  window  shades,  129. 

for  drawing  paper,  137. 

gold,  127. 
Sizing  for  window  shades,  127. 
Skeleton  leaves,  83. 
Skins,  tanning  and  curing,  128. 
Skins,  sheep,  curing  for  mats,  128. 

of  rabbits,  cats,  etc.,  to  cure,  129. 
Slate  for  Aquaria,  165. 
Smoke-stains,  261. 
Soap-bubble  balloons,  189. 
Soft  cement,  37. 
Soft  cement,  225. 
Soft  putty,  258. 
Soil  for  Aquarium,  168. 
Solder,  soft,  composition  of,  23. 

hard,  ho>v  to  make,  34, 


Solder,  flux  for,  24. 

wire,  24. 

for  platium,  25. 

German  silver,  25. 
Soldering,  22. 
Soldering  fluid,  23. 
Soluble  glass  cement,  37. 
Sorel's  cement,  38. 
Speculum  metal'  how  to  make,  15. 
Spikes,  table  of,  244. 
Spirit,  methylated,  238. 
Spirituous  liquors  as  a  stimulant,  10, 
Sponges,  262. 

Spotted  varnish,  to  restore,  145. 
Springs,  to  temper,  135. 
Staining  wood,  154. 
Stains,  how  removed,  129. 

acids,  129. 

aniline  dyes,  130. 
Stains,  fruit,  130. 

grease,  130. 

ink  and  iron  mould,  131. 

mildew,  131. 

nitrate  of  silver,  132. 

paint,  132. 

tar,  132. 
Stains  for  wood,  174. 
Stains,  smoke,  261. 
Stains  to  lemove,  217. 
Stamps,  ink  for,  70. 
Steam  boiler  cement,  38. 
Steel,  forging,  132. 

burnt,  to  restore,  133. 

to  gild,  55. 

to  harden,  133. 

to  tempei,  134. 

blazing  off,  134. 

welding,  136. 

to  blue,  136. 

springs  to  temper,  135. 
Stencils,  mk  for,  70. 
Stenhouse  on  waterproofing,  269 
Stick  lac,  121. 
Stickleback,  nest  of,  175. 
Stimulants,  use  of  in  case  of  accident, 

10. 
Stings  of  insects,  remedy  for,  113. 
Stoclting  an  Aquarium,  169. 
Stoppers,  glass,  to  fit,  56. 

to  remove  tight,  56. 
Straw  for  thatching,  265. 
Strops,  razor  258. 
Strychnine  as  a  poison,  antidote  for. 

Sulphur,  137. 

bleaching  by  means  of,  137. 
disinfecting  by  means  of,  137. 
as  a  cement,  138. 
for  making  moulds,  138. 


284 


INDEX. 


Sulphur  casts,  263. 

Sulphur,  fumigation  with,  191. 

Surfaces  and  volumes,  188. 

Sympathetic  ink,  69. 

Table  of  nails,  244. 

Table  of  weight  of  castings,  205. 

Tadpoles  for  Aquarium,  174. 

Tanks  for  aquaria,  163. 

Tanning  and  curing  skins,  n8. 

Tar,  to  remove  stains  of,  132, 

Taylor's  flux,  213. 

Tempering  steel  on  one  edge,  134. 

steel,  color  indication  of,  134. 

steel  springs,  135. 

steel  saws,  135. 
Thatched  roofs,  265. 
Tiers  argent,  267. 
Tin,  138, 

how  corroded,  138. 

alloys  of,   138. 

and  iron,  139. 
Tinning  iron,  75. 
Tracing  paper,  104. 
Transfer  paper,  104. 
Transparent  cement  for  glass,  38. 
Turner's  cement,  38. 
Tutty  powder  or  putty  powder,  117. 
Type  metal,  15. 
Valisneria  Spiralis,  171. 
Varnish,  to  remove,  217. 
Varnish,  139. 

for  browned  iron,  61. 

for  basketware,  139. 

black,  for  optical  work,  140. 

black,  for  cast  iron,  140. 

freen,  140. 
or  bright  iron  work,  141. 

for  maps,  141. 

mastic,  141. 

for  bright  metals,  141. 

for  paintings,  141. 

for  preventing  rust,  14a. 

shallac,  142. 

tortoise  shell,  Japan,  142. 

turpentine,  142. 

for  violins  and  similar  aiticles,  142 

for  replacing  turpentine  and  lin- 
seed oil  paints,  142. 

white,  hard,  for  wood  or  metal, 143 

white,  for  paper,  143. 

white  spirit,  143. 

Parisian,  for  wood,  143. 

for  stained  wood,  143. 

to  restore  spotted,  145. 

black,  for  zinc,  158. 
Varnishing  paper,  103. 

directions  for,  144, 
Veneering,  267. 


Veneer  wood,  272. 
Vienna  lime  for  polishing  118. 
Violins,  varnish  for,  142, 
Voltage  batteries,  145. 

zincs  for,  146. 
Volumes  and  surfaces,  188. 
Walnut,  black,  to  imitate,  156. 
Walnut  stains  for  wood,  275. 
Washing  glass  vessels,  58 
Watch,  care  of,  146. 
Water  for  Aquaria,  166. 
Water-glass  cement,  225. 
Water-glass  putty,  258. 
Waterproof  glass  paper,  103. 
Waterproofing,  269. 
Waterproofing,  methods  used  for,  147. 

for  leather,  147. 

for  canvas,  147. 

for  sailcloth,  147. 

ordinary  goods,  148. 
Water  stains,  to  remove  from  engrav- 
ings, 105. 
Watertight  walls,  269. 
Wax  for  polishing  floors,  151. 
Wax  lute,  225. 
Wax  milk,  271. 
Waxed  paper,  105. 
Weather  paper  or  barometer  paper, 

102. 
Weight  of  air,  187. 
Weight  of  castings,  204. 
Welding  copper,  39. 

iron,  72, 

steel,  136, 
White  flux,  213. 
White  light,  85,  86,  87. 
White  metal,  271. 
Whitewash,  Treasury  Dep't.   recipe 

for,  149. 
Whiting  for  polishing,  114. 
Window  shades,  sizing  for,  127. 
Wollaston's  white  cement,  38 
Wood,  271. 

Wood's  fusible  metal,  15. 
Wood  floors,  151, 

polishing,  151. 

staining,  154. 
Wood,  how  to  select,  235. 
Yellow  cadmium,  197. 
Yellow  stain  for  wood,  274. 
Zinc,  276. 
Zinc,  characters  of,  158. 

to  pulverize,  158. 

black  varnish  for,  158. 
Zincing  iron,  74. 

iron  by  cold  process,  75. 
Zincs  for  batteries,  amalgamating,i46. 


15he 


8TEEL  SQUARE  POCKET  BOOK 


A  PRACTICAL  AND  HANDY  TREATISE 

GIVING  THE  BEST  METHODS  OF 

USING  THE  CARPENTER'S 

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By  D.  L.  STODDARD 

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150  ILLUSTRATIONS 

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and  specially  made  for  it.  One  new  feature  which  will  commend  itself  to 
mechanics  is  the  absence  of  reference  letters  on  the  illustrations,  therefore 
the  reader  will  have  no  trouble  in  looking  for  the  various  A,  B.  C's,  etc.,  which 
are  sometimes  confusing  to  beginners.  Instead  of  having  to  hunt  for  letters, 
the  reader  will  find  an  exact  engraving  of  the  square  itself  laid  on  the  work  so 
aa  to  give  the  points,  lengths  and  quantities  sought. 

This  is  a  boiled-down  compendium  of  information  about  the  square  which 
CAD  be  referred  to  quickly,  having  a  thorough  alphabetical  index. 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOK  CO. 


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New  York 


HOW  TO  MIX  PAINTS 


A  SIMPLE  TREATISE  PREPARED  TO 

MEET  THE  WANTS  OF  THE 

PRACTICAL  PAINTER 

By 

C.    GODFREY 

64  PAGES  (5x7  inches) 

Fully  Illustrated 

Handsomely  Bound  In  Cloth 


Price,  50  Cents 

Sent  post-paid  on  receipt  of  price 
Your  money  back  if  you  are  not  pleased 

SHIS  book  is  intended  for  those  who  have  not  had 
the  benefit  of  a  long  training  and  experience  in 
mixing  colors.  *, 

Simple  and  clear  directions  are  given  so  that  by  a 
little  practice  the  reader  may  be  able  to  mix  the  var- 
ious tints  and  shades  of  reds,  blues,  yellows,  browns, 
greens,  grays  and  colors  made  from  blacks,  japans,  etc. 

Besides  the  directions  for  mixing  paints,  notes  are 
given  about  tints  and  shades,  use  and  care  of  brushes, 
hints  on  displaying  colors  to  show  customers,  color 
harmony,  etc. 

This  book  will  be  found  an  exceedingly  handy 
companion  for  both  amateur  and  practical  painters. 

The  information  given  in  this  book  will  save  in 
time  and  material  more  than  its  cost  the  first  day  a 
painter  has  it  in  use.  It  is  practical,  simple,  reliable 
and  handy,  as  a  very  complete  index  enables  one  in- 
stantly to  find  the  directions  for  mixing  any  tint  or 
shade,  or  to  know  if  the  color  can  be  had  in  dry  pow- 
der form  without  the  necessity  for  mixing, 

INDUSTRIAL  BOOK  CO. 

178  Fulton  Street  New  York 


Short  Cuts  in  Carpentry 


A  COLLECTION  OF  NEW   AND 
IMPROVED  METHODS  OF  LAYING 
OUT     AND     ERECTING     CARPEN- 
TERS'   AND  JOINERS'   WORK 

By 

ALBERT     FAIR 

80  PAGES  (5x7  inches) 

75  ILLUSTRATIONS 
Handsomely  bound  In  Cloth 


PRICE,  50  CENTS 

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Yonr  money  bacic  If  you  are  not  pleased 


^^rO  LAY  OUT  and  erect  carpenters'  work  accurately  and 
ill  quickly  is  an  accomplishment  desired  by  all  progressive 
^^  carpenters.  In  this  book,  not  only  the  simple  rules  for 
the  short  cut  are  given,  but  also  the  "  reason  why,"  so  that  the 
carpenter  can  apply  his  knowledge  to  many  problems  besides 
those  given  in  this  book. 

The  book  contains  remarks  about  the  carpenter  and  his 
work,  a  large  folding  plate  showing  the  interior  of  a  house  with 
each  part  named,  the  use  of  geometry,  mitreing,  mitre  buxes, 
mitres  for  curved  moldings,  various  kinds  of  molding,  bending 
moldings  around  circles,  rake  moldings,  kerfing,  brackets  for 
coves,  use  of  the  steel  square,  use  of  2-foot  rule,  use  of  glue, 
working  hardwood,  blind  nailing,  setting  door  jambs,  hanging 
doors,  fitting  doors  and  windows,  framing,  siding,  shingling, 
framing  a  floor  with  short  timbers,  building  up  a  beam,  laying 
floors,  wood  carpet,  dished  floors,  veneering,  inlaying,  roof 
framing  simply  explained,  braces,  hoppers,  wheat  bins,  fence 
posts,  shaping  a  flag  pole,  bevel  of  tank  staves,  well  curbs,  etc., 
et'', 


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HOW  TO  READ  PLANS 


A    VALUABLE  MEW    BOOK 

Gy  Charles  G.  Peker 


60  PA6ES  (5x7  Inches) 

43  DRAWINGS  m  TEXT 

8  LARGE  FOLDING  PLATES 

Handsomely    Bound  in  Cloth 


PRICE,  50  GENTS 


Seat  pest  paid  on  receipt  •!  price. 
Your  money  back  If  you  are  not  pleased. 


!^  ANY  building  mechanics  are  handicapped  from  getting 
fj  more  pay  because  they  are  unable  to  read  plans  and 
^     work  from  a  drawing. 

Of  course  the  best  way  is  to  learn  hew  to  draw ; 
but  many  mechanics  cannot  aflford  the  time  for  the  necessary 
practise.  It  is  for  these  men  that  this  book  was  prepared,  as 
the  author  simply  explains  the  meaning  of  the  various  lines, 
plans,  views,  elevations,  sections,  scales,  blue  prints,  devices, 
symbols,  etc.,  to  be  found  on  a  set  of  plans. 

Each  subject  is  taken  up  and  explained  and  illustrated 
separately,  and  then  a  full  complete  set  of  architect's  plans  for  a 
frame  house  is  taken  up  and  explained  so  that  the  reader  will 
be  sure  to  understand  how  to  read  plans. 

The  book  is  finely  illustrated  by  43  illustrations  in  the  text, 
and  8  large  folding  plates  giving  the  full  plan  of  a  6  room  frame 
house.  This  set  of  plans  alone  is  worth  many  times  the  cost  of 
the  book ;  an  architect  would  charge  at  least  $25  for  their  equal. 

The  useful  suggestions,  hints,  etc.,  in  this  book  will  make 
it  of  value  to  even  those  who  understand  how  to  draw  as  well 
as  those  who  do  not. 

It  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  books  ever  got  out  for  build- 
ing mechanics,  as  its  information  means  increasing  a  man's 
salary.  It  is  pretty  safe  to  say  that  to  the  man  who  cannot  read 
a  drawing  now  this  book  will  mean  at  least  $50 more  pay  during 
the  first  year  he  has  it. 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOK  CO. 


178  Fulton  Street 


New  Yorl 


3  3125  00012  3568 


